Contribution of stem cells to skeletal muscle regeneration. Folia Histochem Cytobiol. 2006;44(2):75-9. Folia Histochem Cytobiol. 2006. PMID: 16805130 Review. 1. Abedi M, Greer DA, Colvin GA, Demers DA, Dooner MS, Harpel JA, Weier HU, Lambert JF, Quesenberry PJ. Robust conversion of marrow cells to skeletal muscle with formation of marrow-derived muscle cell colonies: a multifactorial process. Exp Hematol 32: 426–434, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 2. Abiola M, Favier M, Christodoulou-Vafeiadou E, Pichard AL, Martelly I, Guillet-Deniau I. Activation of Wnt/beta-catenin signaling increases insulin sensitivity through a reciprocal regulation of Wnt10b and SREBP-1c in skeletal muscle cells. PLoS One 4: e8509, 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 3. Abou-Khalil R, Le Grand F, Pallafacchina G, Valable S, Authier FJ, Rudnicki MA, Gherardi RK, Germain S, Chretien F, Sotiropoulos A, Lafuste P, Montarras D, Chazaud B. Autocrine and paracrine angiopoietin 1/Tie-2 signaling promotes muscle satellite cell self-renewal. Cell Stem Cell 5: 298–309, 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 4. Abou-Khalil R, Mounier R, Chazaud B. Regulation of myogenic stem cell behavior by vessel cells: the “menage a trois” of satellite cells, periendothelial cells and endothelial cells. Cell Cycle 9: 892–896, 2010 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 5. Adams GR. Autocrine and/or paracrine insulin-like growth factor-I activity in skeletal muscle. Clin Orthop Relat Res S188–196, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 6. Adams GR, McCue SA. Localized infusion of IGF-I results in skeletal muscle hypertrophy in rats. J Appl Physiol 84: 1716–1722, 1998 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 7. Alderton JM, Steinhardt RA. How calcium influx through calcium leak channels is responsible for the elevated levels of calcium-dependent proteolysis in dystrophic myotubes. Trends Cardiovasc Med 10: 268–272, 2000 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 8. Alfaro LA, Dick SA, Siegel AL, Anonuevo AS, McNagny KM, Megeney LA, Cornelison DD, Rossi FM. CD34 promotes satellite cell motility and entry into proliferation to facilitate efficient skeletal muscle regeneration. Stem Cells 29: 2030–2041, 2011 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 9. Allbrook DB, Han MF, Hellmuth AE. Population of muscle satellite cells in relation to age and mitotic activity. Pathology 3: 223–243, 1971 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 10. Allen RE, Boxhorn LK. Inhibition of skeletal muscle satellite cell differentiation by transforming growth factor-beta. J Cell Physiol 133: 567–572, 1987 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 11. Allen RE, Boxhorn LK. Regulation of skeletal muscle satellite cell proliferation and differentiation by transforming growth factor-beta, insulin-like growth factor I, and fibroblast growth factor. J Cell Physiol 138: 311–315, 1989 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 12. Allen RE, Dodson MV, Luiten LS. Regulation of skeletal muscle satellite cell proliferation by bovine pituitary fibroblast growth factor. Exp Cell Res 152: 154–160, 1984 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 13. Allen RE, Sheehan SM, Taylor RG, Kendall TL, Rice GM. Hepatocyte growth factor activates quiescent skeletal muscle satellite cells in vitro. J Cell Physiol 165: 307–312, 1995 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 14. Allouh MZ, Yablonka-Reuveni Z, Rosser BW. Pax7 reveals a greater frequency and concentration of satellite cells at the ends of growing skeletal muscle fibers. J Histochem Cytochem 56: 77–87, 2008 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 15. Anastasi S, Giordano S, Sthandier O, Gambarotta G, Maione R, Comoglio P, Amati P. A natural hepatocyte growth factor/scatter factor autocrine loop in myoblast cells and the effect of the constitutive Met kinase activation on myogenic differentiation. J Cell Biol 137: 1057–1068, 1997 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 16. Anderson JE. A role for nitric oxide in muscle repair: nitric oxide-mediated activation of muscle satellite cells. Mol Biol Cell 11: 1859–1874, 2000 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 17. Angelini C, Di Mauro S, Margreth A. Relationship of serum enzyme changes to muscle damage in vitamin E deficiency of the rabbit. Sperimentale 118: 349–369, 1968 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 18. Armand O, Boutineau AM, Mauger A, Pautou MP, Kieny M. Origin of satellite cells in avian skeletal muscles. Arch Anat Microsc Morphol Exp 72: 163–181, 1983 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 19. Armstrong RB. Initial events in exercise-induced muscular injury. Med Sci Sports Exercise 22: 429–435, 1990 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 20. Arsic N, Zacchigna S, Zentilin L, Ramirez-Correa G, Pattarini L, Salvi A, Sinagra G, Giacca M. Vascular endothelial growth factor stimulates skeletal muscle regeneration in vivo. Mol Ther 10: 844–854, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 21. Artavanis-Tsakonas S, Rand MD, Lake RJ. Notch signaling: cell fate control and signal integration in development. Science 284: 770–776, 1999 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 22. Asakura A, Hirai H, Kablar B, Morita S, Ishibashi J, Piras BA, Christ AJ, Verma M, Vineretsky KA, Rudnicki MA. Increased survival of muscle stem cells lacking the MyoD gene after transplantation into regenerating skeletal muscle. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104: 16552–16557, 2007 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 23. Asakura A, Komaki M, Rudnicki M. Muscle satellite cells are multipotential stem cells that exhibit myogenic, osteogenic, adipogenic differentiation. Differentiation 68: 245–253, 2001 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 24. Asakura A, Seale P, Girgis-Gabardo A, Rudnicki MA. Myogenic specification of side population cells in skeletal muscle. J Cell Biol 159: 123–134, 2002 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 25. Ashcroft GS, Mills SJ, Ashworth JJ. Ageing and wound healing. Biogerontology 3: 337–345, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 26. Ates K, Yang SY, Orrell RW, Sinanan AC, Simons P, Solomon A, Beech S, Goldspink G, Lewis MP. The IGF-I splice variant MGF increases progenitor cells in ALS, dystrophic, and normal muscle. FEBS Lett 581: 2727–2732, 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 27. Bachrach E, Li S, Perez AL, Schienda J, Liadaki K, Volinski J, Flint A, Chamberlain J, Kunkel LM. Systemic delivery of human microdystrophin to regenerating mouse dystrophic muscle by muscle progenitor cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101: 3581–3586, 2004 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 28. Baldwin KM, Haddad F. Effects of different activity and inactivity paradigms on myosin heavy chain gene expression in striated muscle. J Appl Physiol 90: 345–357, 2001 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 29. Baltgalvis KA, Berger FG, Pena MM, Davis JM, Muga SJ, Carson JA. Interleukin-6 and cachexia in ApcMin/+ mice. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 294: R393–R401, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 30. Bansal D, Miyake K, Vogel SS, Groh S, Chen CC, Williamson R, McNeil PL, Campbell KP. Defective membrane repair in dysferlin-deficient muscular dystrophy. Nature 423: 168–172, 2003 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 31. Barberi T, Bradbury M, Dincer Z, Panagiotakos G, Socci ND, Studer L. Derivation of engraftable skeletal myoblasts from human embryonic stem cells. Nat Med 13: 642–648, 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 32. Bark TH, McNurlan MA, Lang CH, Garlick PJ. Increased protein synthesis after acute IGF-I or insulin infusion is localized to muscle in mice. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 275: E118–E123, 1998 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 33. Baron P, Scarpini E, Meola G, Santilli I, Conti G, Pleasure D, Scarlato G. Expression of the low-affinity NGF receptor during human muscle development, regeneration, and in tissue culture. Muscle Nerve 17: 276–284, 1994 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 34. Barton-Davis ER, Shoturma DI, Musaro A, Rosenthal N, Sweeney HL. Viral mediated expression of insulin-like growth factor I blocks the aging-related loss of skeletal muscle function. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95: 15603–15607, 1998 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 35. Barton-Davis ER, Shoturma DI, Sweeney HL. Contribution of satellite cells to IGF-I induced hypertrophy of skeletal muscle. Acta Physiol Scand 167: 301–305, 1999 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 36. Bashir R, Britton S, Strachan T, Keers S, Vafiadaki E, Lako M, Richard I, Marchand S, Bourg N, Argov Z, Sadeh M, Mahjneh I, Marconi G, Passos-Bueno MR, Moreira Ede S, Zatz M, Beckmann JS, Bushby K. A gene related to Caenorhabditis elegans spermatogenesis factor fer-1 is mutated in limb-girdle muscular dystrophy type 2B. Nat Genet 20: 37–42, 1998 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 37. Beauchamp JR, Heslop L, Yu DS, Tajbakhsh S, Kelly RG, Wernig A, Buckingham ME, Partridge TA, Zammit PS. Expression of CD34 and Myf5 defines the majority of quiescent adult skeletal muscle satellite cells. J Cell Biol 151: 1221–1234, 2000 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 38. Beggs ML, Nagarajan R, Taylor-Jones JM, Nolen G, Macnicol M, Peterson CA. Alterations in the TGFbeta signaling pathway in myogenic progenitors with age. Aging Cell 3: 353–361, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 39. Belcastro AN, Shewchuk LD, Raj DA. Exercise-induced muscle injury: a calpain hypothesis. Mol Cell Biochem 179: 135–145, 1998 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 40. Ben-Yair R, Kalcheim C. Lineage analysis of the avian dermomyotome sheet reveals the existence of single cells with both dermal and muscle progenitor fates. Development 132: 689–701, 2005 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 41. Benchaouir R, Meregalli M, Farini A, D'Antona G, Belicchi M, Goyenvalle A, Battistelli M, Bresolin N, Bottinelli R, Garcia L, Torrente Y. Restoration of human dystrophin following transplantation of exon-skipping-engineered DMD patient stem cells into dystrophic mice. Cell Stem Cell 1: 646–657, 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 42. Benezra R, Davis RL, Lassar A, Tapscott S, Thayer M, Lockshon D, Weintraub H. Id: a negative regulator of helix-loop-helix DNA binding proteins. Control of terminal myogenic differentiation. Ann NY Acad Sci 599: 1–11, 1990 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 43. Benezra R, Davis RL, Lockshon D, Turner DL, Weintraub H. The protein Id: a negative regulator of helix-loop-helix DNA binding proteins. Cell 61: 49–59, 1990 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 44. Bergstrom DA, Penn BH, Strand A, Perry RL, Rudnicki MA, Tapscott SJ. Promoter-specific regulation of MyoD binding and signal transduction cooperate to pattern gene expression. Mol Cell 9: 587–600, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 45. Berkes CA, Tapscott SJ. MyoD and the transcriptional control of myogenesis. Semin Cell Dev Biol 16: 585–595, 2005 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 46. Besson V, Smeriglio P, Wegener A, Relaix F, Nait Oumesmar B, Sassoon DA, Marazzi G. PW1 gene/paternally expressed gene 3 (PW1/Peg3) identifies multiple adult stem and progenitor cell populations. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108: 11470–11475, 2011 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 47. Bhagavati S, Xu W. Generation of skeletal muscle from transplanted embryonic stem cells in dystrophic mice. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 333: 644–649, 2005 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 48. Bhasin S, Taylor WE, Singh R, Artaza J, Sinha-Hikim I, Jasuja R, Choi H, Gonzalez-Cadavid NF. The mechanisms of androgen effects on body composition: mesenchymal pluripotent cell as the target of androgen action. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 58: M1103–M1110, 2003 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 49. Bischoff R. Chemotaxis of skeletal muscle satellite cells. Dev Dyn 208: 505–515, 1997 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 50. Bischoff R. Interaction between satellite cells and skeletal muscle fibers. Development 109: 943–952, 1990 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 51. Bischoff R. Regeneration of single skeletal muscle fibers in vitro. Anat Rec 182: 215–235, 1975 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 52. Bischoff R. The satellite cell and muscle regeneration. Myology 97–118, 1994 [Google Scholar] 53. Bischoff R. A satellite cell mitogen from crushed adult muscle. Dev Biol 115: 140–147, 1986 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 54. Bittner RE, Schofer C, Weipoltshammer K, Ivanova S, Streubel B, Hauser E, Freilinger M, Hoger H, Elbe-Burger A, Wachtler F. Recruitment of bone-marrow-derived cells by skeletal and cardiac muscle in adult dystrophic mdx mice. Anat Embryol 199: 391–396, 1999 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 55. Bjerknes M, Cheng H. Gastrointestinal stem cells. II. Intestinal stem cells. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 289: G381–G387, 2005 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 56. Blais A, Tsikitis M, Acosta-Alvear D, Sharan R, Kluger Y, Dynlacht BD. An initial blueprint for myogenic differentiation. Genes Dev 19: 553–569, 2005 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 57. Blaivas M, Carlson BM. Muscle fiber branching–difference between grafts in old and young rats. Mech Ageing Dev 60: 43–53, 1991 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 58. Blaveri K, Heslop L, Yu DS, Rosenblatt JD, Gross JG, Partridge TA, Morgan JE. Patterns of repair of dystrophic mouse muscle: studies on isolated fibers. Dev Dyn 216: 244–256, 1999 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 59. Bockhold KJ, Rosenblatt JD, Partridge TA. Aging normal and dystrophic mouse muscle: analysis of myogenicity in cultures of living single fibers. Muscle Nerve 21: 173–183, 1998 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 60. Bogdan C. Nitric oxide and the regulation of gene expression. Trends Cell Biol 11: 66–75, 2001 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 61. Boonen KJ, Rosaria-Chak KY, Baaijens FP, van der Schaft DW, Post MJ. Essential environmental cues from the satellite cell niche: optimizing proliferation and differentiation. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 296: C1338–C1345, 2009 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 62. Boppart MD, Burkin DJ, Kaufman SJ. Alpha7beta1-integrin regulates mechanotransduction and prevents skeletal muscle injury. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 290: C1660–C1665, 2006 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 63. Bosnakovski D, Xu Z, Li W, Thet S, Cleaver O, Perlingeiro RC, Kyba M. Prospective isolation of skeletal muscle stem cells with a Pax7 reporter. Stem Cells 26: 3194–3204, 2008 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 64. Bourke DL, Ontell M. Branched myofibers in long-term whole muscle transplants: a quantitative study. Anat Rec 209: 281–288, 1984 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 65. Brack AS, Conboy IM, Conboy MJ, Shen J, Rando TA. A temporal switch from notch to Wnt signaling in muscle stem cells is necessary for normal adult myogenesis. Cell Stem Cell 2: 50–59, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 66. Brack AS, Conboy MJ, Roy S, Lee M, Kuo CJ, Keller C, Rando TA. Increased Wnt signaling during aging alters muscle stem cell fate and increases fibrosis. Science 317: 807–810, 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 67. Brandes RP, Fleming I, Busse R. Endothelial aging. Cardiovasc Res 66: 286–294, 2005 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 68. Brazelton TR, Nystrom M, Blau HM. Significant differences among skeletal muscles in the incorporation of bone marrow-derived cells. Dev Biol 262: 64–74, 2003 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 69. Brockes JP, Kumar A. Plasticity and reprogramming of differentiated cells in amphibian regeneration. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 3: 566–574, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 70. Bryan BA, Walshe TE, Mitchell DC, Havumaki JS, Saint-Geniez M, Maharaj AS, Maldonado AE, D'Amore PA. Coordinated vascular endothelial growth factor expression and signaling during skeletal myogenic differentiation. Mol Biol Cell 19: 994–1006, 2008 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 71. Buckingham M. Myogenic progenitor cells and skeletal myogenesis in vertebrates. Curr Opin Genet Dev 16: 525–532, 2006 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 72. Buckingham M, Bajard L, Chang T, Daubas P, Hadchouel J, Meilhac S, Montarras D, Rocancourt D, Relaix F. The formation of skeletal muscle: from somite to limb. J Anat 202: 59–68, 2003 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 73. Burkin DJ, Kaufman SJ. The alpha7beta1 integrin in muscle development and disease. Cell Tissue Res 296: 183–190, 1999 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 74. Cahill CM, Rogers JT. Interleukin (IL) 1beta induction of IL-6 is mediated by a novel phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-dependent AKT/IkappaB kinase alpha pathway targeting activator protein-1. J Biol Chem 283: 25900–25912, 2008 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 75. Cairns J. Mutation selection and the natural history of cancer. Nature 255: 197–200, 1975 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 76. Calise S, Blescia S, Cencetti F, Bernacchioni C, Donati C, Bruni P. Sphingosine 1-phosphate stimulates proliferation and migration of satellite cells: role of S1P receptors. Biochim Biophys Acta 1823: 439–450, 2012 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 77. Camargo FD, Gokhale S, Johnnidis JB, Fu D, Bell GW, Jaenisch R, Brummelkamp TR. YAP1 increases organ size and expands undifferentiated progenitor cells. Curr Biol 17: 2054–2060, 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 78. Camargo FD, Green R, Capetanaki Y, Jackson KA, Goodell MA. Single hematopoietic stem cells generate skeletal muscle through myeloid intermediates. Nat Med 9: 1520–1527, 2003 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 79. Campion DR. The muscle satellite cell: a review. Int Rev Cytol 87: 225–251, 1984 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 80. Cantini M, Carraro U. Macrophage-released factor stimulates selectively myogenic cells in primary muscle culture. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 54: 121–128, 1995 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 81. Cantini M, Giurisato E, Radu C, Tiozzo S, Pampinella F, Senigaglia D, Zaniolo G, Mazzoleni F, Vitiello L. Macrophage-secreted myogenic factors: a promising tool for greatly enhancing the proliferative capacity of myoblasts in vitro and in vivo. Neurol Sci 23: 189–194, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 82. Cao B, Zheng B, Jankowski RJ, Kimura S, Ikezawa M, Deasy B, Cummins J, Epperly M, Qu-Petersen Z, Huard J. Muscle stem cells differentiate into haematopoietic lineages but retain myogenic potential. Nat Cell Biol 5: 640–646, 2003 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 83. Cao Y, Kumar RM, Penn BH, Berkes CA, Kooperberg C, Boyer LA, Young RA, Tapscott SJ. Global and gene-specific analyses show distinct roles for Myod and Myog at a common set of promoters. EMBO J 25: 502–511, 2006 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 84. Cao Y, Yao Z, Sarkar D, Lawrence M, Sanchez GJ, Parker MH, MacQuarrie KL, Davison J, Morgan MT, Ruzzo WL, Gentleman RC, Tapscott SJ. Genome-wide MyoD binding in skeletal muscle cells: a potential for broad cellular reprogramming. Dev Cell 18: 662–674, 2010 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 85. Caplan AI. All MSCs are pericytes? Cell Stem Cell 3: 229–230, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 86. Carmeli E, Moas M, Reznick AZ, Coleman R. Matrix metalloproteinases and skeletal muscle: a brief review. Muscle Nerve 29: 191–197, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 87. Chakravarthy MV, Davis BS, Booth FW. IGF-I restores satellite cell proliferative potential in immobilized old skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol 89: 1365–1379, 2000 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 88. Chang H, Yoshimoto M, Umeda K, Iwasa T, Mizuno Y, Fukada S, Yamamoto H, Motohashi N, Miyagoe-Suzuki Y, Takeda S, Heike T, Nakahata T. Generation of transplantable, functional satellite-like cells from mouse embryonic stem cells. FASEB J 23: 1907–1919, 2009 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 89. Chao DS, Gorospe JR, Brenman JE, Rafael JA, Peters MF, Froehner SC, Hoffman EP, Chamberlain JS, Bredt DS. Selective loss of sarcolemmal nitric oxide synthase in Becker muscular dystrophy. J Exp Med 184: 609–618, 1996 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 90. Charge SB, Brack AS, Hughes SM. Aging-related satellite cell differentiation defect occurs prematurely after Ski-induced muscle hypertrophy. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 283: C1228–C1241, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 91. Chazaud B, Brigitte M, Yacoub-Youssef H, Arnold L, Gherardi R, Sonnet C, Lafuste P, Chretien F. Dual and beneficial roles of macrophages during skeletal muscle regeneration. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 37: 18–22, 2009 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 92. Chazaud B, Sonnet C, Lafuste P, Bassez G, Rimaniol AC, Poron F, Authier FJ, Dreyfus PA, Gherardi RK. Satellite cells attract monocytes and use macrophages as a support to escape apoptosis and enhance muscle growth. J Cell Biol 163: 1133–1143, 2003 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 93. Chen JF, Mandel EM, Thomson JM, Wu Q, Callis TE, Hammond SM, Conlon FL, Wang DZ. The role of microRNA-1 and microRNA-133 in skeletal muscle proliferation and differentiation. Nature Genet 38: 228–233, 2006 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 94. Chen JF, Tao Y, Li J, Deng Z, Yan Z, Xiao X, Wang DZ. microRNA-1 and microRNA-206 regulate skeletal muscle satellite cell proliferation and differentiation by repressing Pax7. J Cell Biol 190: 867–879, 2010 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 95. Chen X, Mao Z, Liu S, Liu H, Wang X, Wu H, Wu Y, Zhao T, Fan W, Li Y, Yew DT, Kindler PM, Li L, He Q, Qian L, Fan M. Dedifferentiation of adult human myoblasts induced by ciliary neurotrophic factor in vitro. Mol Biol Cell 16: 3140–3151, 2005 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 96. Chen Y, Lin G, Slack JM. Control of muscle regeneration in the Xenopus tadpole tail by Pax7. Development 133: 2303–2313, 2006 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 97. Chen Y, Zajac JD, MacLean HE. Androgen regulation of satellite cell function. J Endocrinol 186: 21–31, 2005 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 98. Cheung TH, Quach NL, Charville GW, Liu L, Park L, Edalati A, Yoo B, Hoang P, Rando TA. Maintenance of muscle stem-cell quiescence by microRNA-489. Nature 482: 524–528, 2012 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 99. Chevrel G, Hohlfeld R, Sendtner M. The role of neurotrophins in muscle under physiological and pathological conditions. Muscle Nerve 33: 462–476, 2006 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 100. Christov C, Chretien F, Abou-Khalil R, Bassez G, Vallet G, Authier FJ, Bassaglia Y, Shinin V, Tajbakhsh S, Chazaud B, Gherardi RK. Muscle satellite cells and endothelial cells: close neighbors and privileged partners. Mol Biol Cell 18: 1397–1409, 2007 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 101. Cinnamon Y, Ben-Yair R, Kalcheim C. Differential effects of N-cadherin-mediated adhesion on the development of myotomal waves. Development 133: 1101–1112, 2006 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 102. Clow C, Jasmin BJ. Skeletal muscle-derived BDNF regulates satellite cell differentiation and muscle regeneration. Mol Biol Cell 2010 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 103. Coleman ME, DeMayo F, Yin KC, Lee HM, Geske R, Montgomery C, Schwartz RJ. Myogenic vector expression of insulin-like growth factor I stimulates muscle cell differentiation and myofiber hypertrophy in transgenic mice. J Biol Chem 270: 12109–12116, 1995 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 104. Collins-Hooper H, Woolley TE, Dyson L, Patel A, Potter P, Baker RE, Gaffney EA, Maini PK, Dash PR, Patel K. Age-related changes in speed and mechanism of adult skeletal muscle stem cell migration. Stem Cells 30: 1182–1195, 2012 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 105. Collins CA, Olsen I, Zammit PS, Heslop L, Petrie A, Partridge TA, Morgan JE. Stem cell function, self-renewal, and behavioral heterogeneity of cells from the adult muscle satellite cell niche. Cell 122: 289–301, 2005 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 106. Collinsworth AM, Zhang S, Kraus WE, Truskey GA. Apparent elastic modulus and hysteresis of skeletal muscle cells throughout differentiation. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 283: C1219–C1227, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 107. Conboy IM, Conboy MJ, Smythe GM, Rando TA. Notch-mediated restoration of regenerative potential to aged muscle. Science 302: 1575–1577, 2003 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 108. Conboy IM, Rando TA. The regulation of Notch signaling controls satellite cell activation and cell fate determination in postnatal myogenesis. Dev Cell 3: 397–409, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 109. Conboy MJ, Karasov AO, Rando TA. High incidence of non-random template strand segregation and asymmetric fate determination in dividing stem cells and their progeny. PLoS Biol 5: e102, 2007 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 110. Coolican SA, Samuel DS, Ewton DZ, McWade FJ, Florini JR. The mitogenic and myogenic actions of insulin-like growth factors utilize distinct signaling pathways. J Biol Chem 272: 6653–6662, 1997 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 111. Cooper RN, Tajbakhsh S, Mouly V, Cossu G, Buckingham M, Butler-Browne GS. In vivo satellite cell activation via Myf5 and MyoD in regenerating mouse skeletal muscle. J Cell Sci 112: 2895–2901, 1999 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 112. Corbel SY, Lee A, Yi L, Duenas J, Brazelton TR, Blau HM, Rossi FM. Contribution of hematopoietic stem cells to skeletal muscle. Nat Med 9: 1528–1532, 2003 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 113. Cornelison DD, Filla MS, Stanley HM, Rapraeger AC, Olwin BB. Syndecan-3 and syndecan-4 specifically mark skeletal muscle satellite cells and are implicated in satellite cell maintenance and muscle regeneration. Dev Biol 239: 79–94, 2001 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 114. Cornelison DD, Olwin BB, Rudnicki MA, Wold BJ. MyoD(−/−) satellite cells in single-fiber culture are differentiation defective and MRF4 deficient. Dev Biol 224: 122–137, 2000 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 115. Cornelison DD, Wilcox-Adelman SA, Goetinck PF, Rauvala H, Rapraeger AC, Olwin BB. Essential and separable roles for Syndecan-3 and Syndecan-4 in skeletal muscle development and regeneration. Genes Dev 18: 2231–2236, 2004 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 116. Cornelison DD, Wold BJ. Single-cell analysis of regulatory gene expression in quiescent and activated mouse skeletal muscle satellite cells. Dev Biol 191: 270–283, 1997 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 117. Cox DM, Du M, Marback M, Yang EC, Chan J, Siu KW, McDermott JC. Phosphorylation motifs regulating the stability and function of myocyte enhancer factor 2A. J Biol Chem 278: 15297–15303, 2003 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 118. Crisan M, Yap S, Casteilla L, Chen CW, Corselli M, Park TS, Andriolo G, Sun B, Zheng B, Zhang L, Norotte C, Teng PN, Traas J, Schugar R, Deasy BM, Badylak S, Buhring HJ, Giacobino JP, Lazzari L, Huard J, Peault B. A perivascular origin for mesenchymal stem cells in multiple human organs. Cell Stem Cell 3: 301–313, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 119. Crist CG, Montarras D, Pallafacchina G, Rocancourt D, Cumano A, Conway SJ, Buckingham M. Muscle stem cell behavior is modified by microRNA-27 regulation of Pax3 expression. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106: 13383–13387, 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 120. Csete M, Walikonis J, Slawny N, Wei Y, Korsnes S, Doyle JC, Wold B. Oxygen-mediated regulation of skeletal muscle satellite cell proliferation and adipogenesis in culture. J Cell Physiol 189: 189–196, 2001 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 121. d'Albis A, Lenfant-Guyot M, Janmot C, Chanoine C, Weinman J, Gallien CL. Regulation by thyroid hormones of terminal differentiation in the skeletal dorsal muscle. I. Neonate mouse. Dev Biol 123: 25–32, 1987 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 122. Danieli-Betto D, Peron S, Germinario E, Zanin M, Sorci G, Franzoso S, Sandona D, Betto R. Sphingosine 1-phosphate signaling is involved in skeletal muscle regeneration. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 298: C550–C558, 2010 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 123. Darabi R, Arpke RW, Irion S, Dimos JT, Grskovic M, Kyba M, Perlingeiro RC. Human ES- and iPS-derived myogenic progenitors restore dystrophin and improve contractility upon transplantation in dystrophic mice. Cell Stem Cell 10: 610–619, 2012 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 124. Darabi R, Gehlbach K, Bachoo RM, Kamath S, Osawa M, Kamm KE, Kyba M, Perlingeiro RC. Functional skeletal muscle regeneration from differentiating embryonic stem cells. Nat Med 14: 134–143, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 125. Darabi R, Santos FN, Filareto A, Pan W, Koene R, Rudnicki MA, Kyba M, Perlingeiro RC. Assessment of the myogenic stem cell compartment following transplantation of Pax3/Pax7-induced embryonic stem cell-derived progenitors. Stem Cells 29: 777–790, 2011 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 126. Darmani H, Crossan J, McLellan SD, Meek D, Adam C. Expression of nitric oxide synthase and transforming growth factor-beta in crush-injured tendon and synovium. Mediators Inflamm 13: 299–305, 2004 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 127. Day K, Shefer G, Richardson JB, Enikolopov G, Yablonka-Reuveni Z. Nestin-GFP reporter expression defines the quiescent state of skeletal muscle satellite cells. Dev Biol 304: 246–259, 2007 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 128. Day K, Shefer G, Shearer A, Yablonka-Reuveni Z. The depletion of skeletal muscle satellite cells with age is concomitant with reduced capacity of single progenitors to produce reserve progeny. Dev Biol 340: 330–343, 2010 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 129. De Angelis L, Berghella L, Coletta M, Lattanzi L, Zanchi M, Cusella-De Angelis MG, Ponzetto C, Cossu G. Skeletal myogenic progenitors originating from embryonic dorsal aorta coexpress endothelial and myogenic markers and contribute to postnatal muscle growth and regeneration. J Cell Biol 147: 869–878, 1999 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 130. De Castro Rodrigues A, Andreo JC, de Mattos Rodrigues SP. Myonuclei and satellite cells in denervated rat muscles: an electron microscopy study. Microsurgery 26: 396–398, 2006 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 131. De Strooper B, Annaert W. Where Notch and Wnt signaling meet. The presenilin hub. J Cell Biol 152: F17–20, 2001 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 132. Deasy BM, Feduska JM, Payne TR, Li Y, Ambrosio F, Huard J. Effect of VEGF on the regenerative capacity of muscle stem cells in dystrophic skeletal muscle. Mol Ther J Am Soc Gene Ther 17: 1788–1798, 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 133. DeChiara TM, Efstratiadis A, Robertson EJ. A growth-deficiency phenotype in heterozygous mice carrying an insulin-like growth factor II gene disrupted by targeting. Nature 345: 78–80, 1990 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 134. deLapeyriere O, Ollendorff V, Planche J, Ott MO, Pizette S, Coulier F, Birnbaum D. Expression of the Fgf6 gene is restricted to developing skeletal muscle in the mouse embryo. Development 118: 601–611, 1993 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 135. Dellavalle A, Maroli G, Covarello D, Azzoni E, Innocenzi A, Perani L, Antonini S, Sambasivan R, Brunelli S, Tajbakhsh S, Cossu G. Pericytes resident in postnatal skeletal muscle differentiate into muscle fibres and generate satellite cells. Nature Commun 2: 499, 2011 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 136. Dellavalle A, Sampaolesi M, Tonlorenzi R, Tagliafico E, Sacchetti B, Perani L, Innocenzi A, Galvez BG, Messina G, Morosetti R, Li S, Belicchi M, Peretti G, Chamberlain JS, Wright WE, Torrente Y, Ferrari S, Bianco P, Cossu G. Pericytes of human skeletal muscle are myogenic precursors distinct from satellite cells. Nat Cell Biol 9: 255–267, 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 137. Delling U, Tureckova J, Lim HW, De Windt LJ, Rotwein P, Molkentin JD. A calcineurin-NFATc3-dependent pathway regulates skeletal muscle differentiation and slow myosin heavy-chain expression. Mol Cell Biol 20: 6600–6611, 2000 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 138. Deponti D, Buono R, Catanzaro G, De Palma C, Longhi R, Meneveri R, Bresolin N, Bassi MT, Cossu G, Clementi E, Brunelli S. The low-affinity receptor for neurotrophins p75NTR plays a key role for satellite cell function in muscle repair acting via RhoA. Mol Biol Cell 20: 3620–3627, 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 139. Dey BK, Gagan J, Dutta A. miR-206 and -486 induce myoblast differentiation by downregulating Pax7. Mol Cell Biol 31: 203–214, 2011 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 140. Dezawa M, Ishikawa H, Itokazu Y, Yoshihara T, Hoshino M, Takeda S, Ide C, Nabeshima Y. Bone marrow stromal cells generate muscle cells and repair muscle degeneration. Science 309: 314–317, 2005 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 141. DiMario J, Buffinger N, Yamada S, Strohman RC. Fibroblast growth factor in the extracellular matrix of dystrophic (mdx) mouse muscle. Science 244: 688–690, 1989 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 142. Doherty MJ, Ashton BA, Walsh S, Beresford JN, Grant ME, Canfield AE. Vascular pericytes express osteogenic potential in vitro and in vivo. J Bone Miner Res 13: 828–838, 1998 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 143. Doumit ME, Cook DR, Merkel RA. Testosterone up-regulates androgen receptors and decreases differentiation of porcine myogenic satellite cells in vitro. Endocrinology 137: 1385–1394, 1996 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 144. Doumit ME, Merkel RA. Conditions for isolation and culture of porcine myogenic satellite cells. Tissue Cell 24: 253–262, 1992 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 145. Dourdin N, Balcerzak D, Brustis JJ, Poussard S, Cottin P, Ducastaing A. Potential m-calpain substrates during myoblast fusion. Exp Cell Res 246: 433–442, 1999 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 146. Doyle MJ, Zhou S, Tanaka KK, Pisconti A, Farina NH, Sorrentino BP, Olwin BB. Abcg2 labels multiple cell types in skeletal muscle and participates in muscle regeneration. J Cell Biol 195: 147–163, 2011 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 147. Doyonnas R, LaBarge MA, Sacco A, Charlton C, Blau HM. Hematopoietic contribution to skeletal muscle regeneration by myelomonocytic precursors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101: 13507–13512, 2004 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 148. Dreyfus PA, Chretien F, Chazaud B, Kirova Y, Caramelle P, Garcia L, Butler-Browne G, Gherardi RK. Adult bone marrow-derived stem cells in muscle connective tissue and satellite cell niches. Am J Pathol 164: 773–779, 2004 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 149. Duckmanton A, Kumar A, Chang YT, Brockes JP. A single-cell analysis of myogenic dedifferentiation induced by small molecules. Chem Biol 12: 1117–1126, 2005 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 150. Enesco M, Puddy D. Increase in the number of nuclei and weight in skeletal muscle of rats of various ages. Am J Anat 114: 235–244, 1964 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 151. Engert JC, Berglund EB, Rosenthal N. Proliferation precedes differentiation in IGF-I-stimulated myogenesis. J Cell Biol 135: 431–440, 1996 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 152. Engler AJ, Griffin MA, Sen S, Bonnemann CG, Sweeney HL, Discher DE. Myotubes differentiate optimally on substrates with tissue-like stiffness: pathological implications for soft or stiff microenvironments. J Cell Biol 166: 877–887, 2004 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 153. Ernfors P, Wetmore C, Eriksdotter-Nilsson M, Bygdeman M, Stromberg I, Olson L, Persson H. The nerve growth factor receptor gene is expressed in both neuronal and non-neuronal tissues in the human fetus. Int J Dev Neurosci 9: 57–66, 1991 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 154. Ershler WB, Keller ET. Age-associated increased interleukin-6 gene expression, late-life diseases, and frailty. Annu Rev Med 51: 245–270, 2000 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 155. Esner M, Meilhac SM, Relaix F, Nicolas JF, Cossu G, Buckingham ME. Smooth muscle of the dorsal aorta shares a common clonal origin with skeletal muscle of the myotome. Development 133: 737–749, 2006 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 156. Espinosa A, Estrada M, Jaimovich E. IGF-I and insulin induce different intracellular calcium signals in skeletal muscle cells. J Endocrinol 182: 339–352, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 157. Estrada M, Espinosa A, Muller M, Jaimovich E. Testosterone stimulates intracellular calcium release and mitogen-activated protein kinases via a G protein-coupled receptor in skeletal muscle cells. Endocrinology 144: 3586–3597, 2003 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 158. Ewton DZ, Falen SL, Florini JR. The type II insulin-like growth factor (IGF) receptor has low affinity for IGF-I analogs: pleiotypic actions of IGFs on myoblasts are apparently mediated by the type I receptor. Endocrinology 120: 115–123, 1987 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 159. Fahim MA, Robbins N. Ultrastructural studies of young and old mouse neuromuscular junctions. J Neurocytol 11: 641–656, 1982 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 160. Fan Y, Maley M, Beilharz M, Grounds M. Rapid death of injected myoblasts in myoblast transfer therapy. Muscle Nerve 19: 853–860, 1996 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 161. Farrington-Rock C, Crofts NJ, Doherty MJ, Ashton BA, Griffin-Jones C, Canfield AE. Chondrogenic and adipogenic potential of microvascular pericytes. Circulation 110: 2226–2232, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 162. Fedorov YV, Rosenthal RS, Olwin BB. Oncogenic Ras-induced proliferation requires autocrine fibroblast growth factor 2 signaling in skeletal muscle cells. J Cell Biol 152: 1301–1305, 2001 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 163. Feng J, Mantesso A, De Bari C, Nishiyama A, Sharpe PT. Dual origin of mesenchymal stem cells contributing to organ growth and repair. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108: 6503–6508, 2011 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 164. Fernando P, Kelly JF, Balazsi K, Slack RS, Megeney LA. Caspase 3 activity is required for skeletal muscle differentiation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99: 11025–11030, 2002 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 165. Ferrando AA, Sheffield-Moore M, Yeckel CW, Gilkison C, Jiang J, Achacosa A, Lieberman SA, Tipton K, Wolfe RR, Urban RJ. Testosterone administration to older men improves muscle function: molecular and physiological mechanisms. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 282: E601–E607, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 166. Ferrari G, Cusella-De Angelis G, Coletta M, Paolucci E, Stornaiuolo A, Cossu G, Mavilio F. Muscle regeneration by bone marrow-derived myogenic progenitors. Science 279: 1528–1530, 1998 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 167. Ferre PJ, Liaubet L, Concordet D, SanCristobal M, Uro-Coste E, Tosser-Klopp G, Bonnet A, Toutain PL, Hatey F, Lefebvre HP. Longitudinal analysis of gene expression in porcine skeletal muscle after post-injection local injury. Pharm Res 24: 1480–1489, 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 168. Fielding RA, Manfredi TJ, Ding W, Fiatarone MA, Evans WJ, Cannon JG. Acute phase response in exercise. III. Neutrophil and IL-1 beta accumulation in skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 265: R166–R172, 1993 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 169. Florini JR, Ewton DZ, Coolican SA. Growth hormone and the insulin-like growth factor system in myogenesis. Endocr Rev 17: 481–517, 1996 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 170. Florini JR, Ewton DZ, Roof SL. Insulin-like growth factor-I stimulates terminal myogenic differentiation by induction of myogenin gene expression. Mol Endocrinol 5: 718–724, 1991 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 171. Florini JR, Magri KA, Ewton DZ, James PL, Grindstaff K, Rotwein PS. “Spontaneous” differentiation of skeletal myoblasts is dependent upon autocrine secretion of insulin-like growth factor-II. J Biol Chem 266: 15917–15923, 1991 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 172. Floss T, Arnold HH, Braun T. A role for FGF-6 in skeletal muscle regeneration. Genes Dev 11: 2040–2051, 1997 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 173. Friday BB, Horsley V, Pavlath GK. Calcineurin activity is required for the initiation of skeletal muscle differentiation. J Cell Biol 149: 657–666, 2000 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 174. Fuchs E. Finding one's niche in the skin. Cell Stem Cell 4: 499–502, 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 175. Fuchtbauer EM, Westphal H. MyoD and myogenin are coexpressed in regenerating skeletal muscle of the mouse. Dev Dyn 193: 34–39, 1992 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 176. Fukada S. Molecular regulation of muscle stem cells by “quiescence genes.” Yakugaku zasshi J Pharmaceutical Soc Japan 131: 1329–1332, 2011 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 177. Fukada S, Uezumi A, Ikemoto M, Masuda S, Segawa M, Tanimura N, Yamamoto H, Miyagoe-Suzuki Y, Takeda S. Molecular signature of quiescent satellite cells in adult skeletal muscle. Stem Cells 25: 2448–2459, 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 178. Fukushima K, Nakamura A, Ueda H, Yuasa K, Yoshida K, Takeda S, Ikeda S. Activation and localization of matrix metalloproteinase-2 and -9 in the skeletal muscle of the muscular dystrophy dog (CXMDJ). BMC Musculoskelet Disord 8: 54, 2007 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 179. Gal-Levi R, Leshem Y, Aoki S, Nakamura T, Halevy O. Hepatocyte growth factor plays a dual role in regulating skeletal muscle satellite cell proliferation and differentiation. Biochim Biophys Acta 1402: 39–51, 1998 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 180. Galbiati F, Volonte D, Engelman JA, Scherer PE, Lisanti MP. Targeted down-regulation of caveolin-3 is sufficient to inhibit myotube formation in differentiating C2C12 myoblasts. Transient activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase is required for induction of caveolin-3 expression and subsequent myotube formation. J Biol Chem 274: 30315–30321, 1999 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 181. Galbiati F, Volonte D, Minetti C, Chu JB, Lisanti MP. Phenotypic behavior of caveolin-3 mutations that cause autosomal dominant limb girdle muscular dystrophy (LGMD-1C). Retention of LGMD-1C caveolin-3 mutants within the Golgi complex. J Biol Chem 274: 25632–25641, 1999 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 182. Galvez BG, Sampaolesi M, Brunelli S, Covarello D, Gavina M, Rossi B, Constantin G, Torrente Y, Cossu G. Complete repair of dystrophic skeletal muscle by mesoangioblasts with enhanced migration ability. J Cell Biol 174: 231–243, 2006 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 183. Gao C, Chen YG. Dishevelled: the hub of Wnt signaling. Cell Signal 22: 717–727, 2010 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 184. Gao Y, Kostrominova TY, Faulkner JA, Wineman AS. Age-related changes in the mechanical properties of the epimysium in skeletal muscles of rats. J Biomech 41: 465–469, 2008 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 185. Gatchalian CL, Schachner M, Sanes JR. Fibroblasts that proliferate near denervated synaptic sites in skeletal muscle synthesize the adhesive molecules tenascin(J1), N-CAM, fibronectin, and a heparan sulfate proteoglycan. J Cell Biol 108: 1873–1890, 1989 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 186. Gauthier-Rouviere C, Vandromme M, Tuil D, Lautredou N, Morris M, Soulez M, Kahn A, Fernandez A, Lamb N. Expression and activity of serum response factor is required for expression of the muscle-determining factor MyoD in both dividing and differentiating mouse C2C12 myoblasts. Mol Biol Cell 7: 719–729, 1996 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 187. Gayraud-Morel B, Chretien F, Flamant P, Gomes D, Zammit PS, Tajbakhsh S. A role for the myogenic determination gene Myf5 in adult regenerative myogenesis. Dev Biol 312: 13–28, 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 188. Gensch N, Borchardt T, Schneider A, Riethmacher D, Braun T. Different autonomous myogenic cell populations revealed by ablation of Myf5-expressing cells during mouse embryogenesis. Development 135: 1597–1604, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 189. Germani A, Di Carlo A, Mangoni A, Straino S, Giacinti C, Turrini P, Biglioli P, Capogrossi MC. Vascular endothelial growth factor modulates skeletal myoblast function. Am J Pathol 163: 1417–1428, 2003 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 190. Gibson MC, Schultz E. The distribution of satellite cells and their relationship to specific fiber types in soleus and extensor digitorum longus muscles. Anat Rec 202: 329–337, 1982 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 191. Gillespie MA, Le Grand F, Scime A, Kuang S, von Maltzahn J, Seale V, Cuenda A, Ranish JA, Rudnicki MA. p38-γ-dependent gene silencing restricts entry into the myogenic differentiation program. J Cell Biol 187: 991–1005, 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 192. Gnocchi VF, White RB, Ono Y, Ellis JA, Zammit PS. Further characterisation of the molecular signature of quiescent and activated mouse muscle satellite cells. PLoS One 4: e5205, 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 193. Golding JP, Calderbank E, Partridge TA, Beauchamp JR. Skeletal muscle stem cells express anti-apoptotic ErbB receptors during activation from quiescence. Exp Cell Res 313: 341–356, 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 194. Goldspink G. Research on mechano growth factor: its potential for optimising physical training as well as misuse in doping. Br J Sports Med 39: 787–788, 2005 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 195. Goldspink G, Fernandes K, Williams PE, Wells DJ. Age-related changes in collagen gene expression in the muscles of mdx dystrophic and normal mice. Neuromuscul Disord 4: 183–191, 1994 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 196. Goljanek-Whysall K, Sweetman D, Abu-Elmagd M, Chapnik E, Dalmay T, Hornstein E, Munsterberg A. MicroRNA regulation of the paired-box transcription factor Pax3 confers robustness to developmental timing of myogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108: 11936–11941, 2011 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 197. Gonzalez I, Tripathi G, Carter EJ, Cobb LJ, Salih DA, Lovett FA, Holding C, Pell JM. Akt2, a novel functional link between p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase pathways in myogenesis. Mol Cell Biol 24: 3607–3622, 2004 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 198. Goodpaster BH, Wolf D. Skeletal muscle lipid accumulation in obesity, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes. Pediatr Diabetes 5: 219–226, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 199. Grass S, Arnold HH, Braun T. Alterations in somite patterning of Myf-5-deficient mice: a possible role for FGF-4 and FGF-6. Development 122: 141–150, 1996 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 200. Greco AV, Mingrone G, Giancaterini A, Manco M, Morroni M, Cinti S, Granzotto M, Vettor R, Camastra S, Ferrannini E. Insulin resistance in morbid obesity: reversal with intramyocellular fat depletion. Diabetes 51: 144–151, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 201. Griesbeck O, Parsadanian AS, Sendtner M, Thoenen H. Expression of neurotrophins in skeletal muscle: quantitative comparison and significance for motoneuron survival and maintenance of function. J Neurosci Res 42: 21–33, 1995 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 202. Grimby G, Saltin B. The ageing muscle. Clin Physiol 3: 209–218, 1983 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 203. Gros J, Manceau M, Thome V, Marcelle C. A common somitic origin for embryonic muscle progenitors and satellite cells. Nature 435: 954–958, 2005 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 204. Gros J, Scaal M, Marcelle C. A two-step mechanism for myotome formation in chick. Dev Cell 6: 875–882, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 205. Gros J, Serralbo O, Marcelle C. WNT11 acts as a directional cue to organize the elongation of early muscle fibres. Nature 457: 589–593, 2009 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 206. Grounds MD. Phagocytosis of necrotic muscle in muscle isografts is influenced by the strain, age, and sex of host mice. J Pathol 153: 71–82, 1987 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 207. Grounds MD, Garrett KL, Lai MC, Wright WE, Beilharz MW. Identification of skeletal muscle precursor cells in vivo by use of MyoD1 and myogenin probes. Cell Tissue Res 267: 99–104, 1992 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 208. Gullberg D, Tiger CF, Velling T. Laminins during muscle development and in muscular dystrophies. Cell Mol Life Sci 56: 442–460, 1999 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 209. Guo K, Wang J, Andres V, Smith RC, Walsh K. MyoD-induced expression of p21 inhibits cyclin-dependent kinase activity upon myocyte terminal differentiation. Mol Cell Biol 15: 3823–3829, 1995 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 210. Gussoni E, Soneoka Y, Strickland CD, Buzney EA, Khan MK, Flint AF, Kunkel LM, Mulligan RC. Dystrophin expression in the mdx mouse restored by stem cell transplantation. Nature 401: 390–394, 1999 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 211. Guttinger M, Tafi E, Battaglia M, Coletta M, Cossu G. Allogeneic mesoangioblasts give rise to alpha-sarcoglycan expressing fibers when transplanted into dystrophic mice. Exp Cell Res 312: 3872–3879, 2006 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 212. Haddad F, Zaldivar F, Cooper DM, Adams GR. IL-6-induced skeletal muscle atrophy. J Appl Physiol 98: 911–917, 2005 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 213. Haldar M, Karan G, Tvrdik P, Capecchi MR. Two cell lineages, myf5 and myf5-independent, participate in mouse skeletal myogenesis. Dev Cell 14: 437–445, 2008 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 214. Halevy O, Cantley LC. Differential regulation of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase and MAP kinase pathways by hepatocyte growth factor vs. insulin-like growth factor-I in myogenic cells. Exp Cell Res 297: 224–234, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 215. Halevy O, Novitch BG, Spicer DB, Skapek SX, Rhee J, Hannon GJ, Beach D, Lassar AB. Correlation of terminal cell cycle arrest of skeletal muscle with induction of p21 by MyoD. Science 267: 1018–1021, 1995 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 216. Halevy O, Piestun Y, Allouh MZ, Rosser BW, Rinkevich Y, Reshef R, Rozenboim I, Wleklinski-Lee M, Yablonka-Reuveni Z. Pattern of Pax7 expression during myogenesis in the posthatch chicken establishes a model for satellite cell differentiation and renewal. Dev Dyn 231: 489–502, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 217. Hall-Craggs EC, Seyan HS. Histochemical changes in innervated and denervated skeletal muscle fibers following treatment with bupivacaine (marcain). Exp Neurol 46: 345–354, 1975 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 218. Hamer PW, McGeachie JM, Davies MJ, Grounds MD. Evans Blue Dye as an in vivo marker of myofibre damage: optimising parameters for detecting initial myofibre membrane permeability. J Anat 200: 69–79, 2002 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 219. Hammond CL, Hinits Y, Osborn DP, Minchin JE, Tettamanti G, Hughes SM. Signals and myogenic regulatory factors restrict pax3 and pax7 expression to dermomyotome-like tissue in zebrafish. Dev Biol 302: 504–521, 2007 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 220. Han B, Tong J, Zhu MJ, Ma C, Du M. Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and leucine activate pig myogenic satellite cells through mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway. Mol Reprod Dev 75: 810–817, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 221. Han J, Jiang Y, Li Z, Kravchenko VV, Ulevitch RJ. Activation of the transcription factor MEF2C by the MAP kinase p38 in inflammation. Nature 386: 296–299, 1997 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 222. Hannon K, Kudla AJ, McAvoy MJ, Clase KL, Olwin BB. Differentially expressed fibroblast growth factors regulate skeletal muscle development through autocrine and paracrine mechanisms. J Cell Biol 132: 1151–1159, 1996 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 223. Hannun YA, Obeid LM. Principles of bioactive lipid signalling: lessons from sphingolipids. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 9: 139–150, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 224. Hansen-Smith FM, Picou D, Golden MH. Muscle satellite cells in malnourished and nutritionally rehabilitated children. J Neurol Sci 41: 207–221, 1979 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 225. Harel I, Nathan E, Tirosh-Finkel L, Zigdon H, Guimaraes-Camboa N, Evans SM, Tzahor E. Distinct origins and genetic programs of head muscle satellite cells. Dev Cell 16: 822–832, 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 226. He L, Papoutsi M, Huang R, Tomarev SI, Christ B, Kurz H, Wilting J. Three different fates of cells migrating from somites into the limb bud. Anat Embryol 207: 29–34, 2003 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 227. Hellmuth AE, Allbrook DB. Muscle satellite cell numbers during the postnatal period. J Anat 110: 503, 1971 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 228. Herbst KL, Bhasin S. Testosterone action on skeletal muscle. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 7: 271–277, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 229. Hermanson JW, Moschella MC, Ontell M. Effect of neonatal denervation-reinnervation on the functional capacity of a 129ReJ dy/dy murine dystrophic muscle. Exp Neurol 102: 210–216, 1988 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 230. Hinescu ME, Gherghiceanu M, Suciu L, Popescu LM. Telocytes in pleura: two- and three-dimensional imaging by transmission electron microscopy. Cell Tissue Res 343: 389–397, 2011 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 231. Hirai H, Verma M, Watanabe S, Tastad C, Asakura Y, Asakura A. MyoD regulates apoptosis of myoblasts through microRNA-mediated down-regulation of Pax3. J Cell Biol 191: 347–365, 2010 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 232. Hjiantoniou E, Anayasa M, Nicolaou P, Bantounas I, Saito M, Iseki S, Uney JB, Phylactou LA. Twist induces reversal of myotube formation. Differ Res Biol Diversity 76: 182–192, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 233. Hollemann D, Budka H, Loscher WN, Yanagida G, Fischer MB, Wanschitz JV. Endothelial and myogenic differentiation of hematopoietic progenitor cells in inflammatory myopathies. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 67: 711–719, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 234. Hollenberg SM, Cheng PF, Weintraub H. Use of a conditional MyoD transcription factor in studies of MyoD trans-activation and muscle determination. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90: 8028–8032, 1993 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 235. Holterman CE, Le Grand F, Kuang S, Seale P, Rudnicki MA. Megf10 regulates the progression of the satellite cell myogenic program. J Cell Biol 179: 911–922, 2007 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 236. Horowitz A, Tkachenko E, Simons M. Fibroblast growth factor-specific modulation of cellular response by syndecan-4. J Cell Biol 157: 715–725, 2002 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 237. Horsley V, Friday BB, Matteson S, Kegley KM, Gephart J, Pavlath GK. Regulation of the growth of multinucleated muscle cells by an NFATC2-dependent pathway. J Cell Biol 153: 329–338, 2001 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 238. Horsley V, Pavlath GK. Forming a multinucleated cell: molecules that regulate myoblast fusion. Cells Tissues Organs 176: 67–78, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 239. Hu E, Tontonoz P, Spiegelman BM. Transdifferentiation of myoblasts by the adipogenic transcription factors PPAR gamma and C/EBP alpha. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92: 9856–9860, 1995 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 240. Huckins C. The spermatogonial stem cell population in adult rats. I. Their morphology, proliferation and maturation. Anat Rec 169: 533–557, 1971 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 241. Hughes SM, Blau HM. Migration of myoblasts across basal lamina during skeletal muscle development. Nature 345: 350–353, 1990 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 242. Hutcheson DA, Zhao J, Merrell A, Haldar M, Kardon G. Embryonic and fetal limb myogenic cells are derived from developmentally distinct progenitors and have different requirements for beta-catenin. Genes Dev 23: 997–1013, 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 243. Ikezawa M, Cao B, Qu Z, Peng H, Xiao X, Pruchnic R, Kimura S, Miike T, Huard J. Dystrophin delivery in dystrophin-deficient DMDmdx skeletal muscle by isogenic muscle-derived stem cell transplantation. Hum Gene Ther 14: 1535–1546, 2003 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 244. Irintchev A, Zeschnigk M, Starzinski-Powitz A, Wernig A. Expression pattern of M-cadherin in normal, denervated, and regenerating mouse muscles. Dev Dyn 199: 326–337, 1994 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 245. Jackson KA, Mi T, Goodell MA. Hematopoietic potential of stem cells isolated from murine skeletal muscle. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96: 14482–14486, 1999 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 246. James PL, Jones SB, Busby WH, Jr, Clemmons DR, Rotwein P. A highly conserved insulin-like growth factor-binding protein (IGFBP-5) is expressed during myoblast differentiation. J Biol Chem 268: 22305–22312, 1993 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 247. Jankowski RJ, Huard J. Establishing reliable criteria for isolating myogenic cell fractions with stem cell properties and enhanced regenerative capacity. Blood Cells Mol Dis 32: 24–33, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 248. Jejurikar SS, Marcelo CL, Kuzon WM., Jr Skeletal muscle denervation increases satellite cell susceptibility to apoptosis. Plast Reconstr Surg 110: 160–168, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 249. Jenniskens GJ, Veerkamp JH, van Kuppevelt TH. Heparan sulfates in skeletal muscle development and physiology. J Cell Physiol 206: 283–294, 2006 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 250. Jirmanova I, Thesleff S. Ultrastructural study of experimental muscle degeneration and regeneration in the adult rat. Z Zellforsch Mikrosk Anat 131: 77–97, 1972 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 251. Jockusch H, Voigt S. Migration of adult myogenic precursor cells as revealed by GFP/nLacZ labelling of mouse transplantation chimeras. J Cell Sci 116: 1611–1616, 2003 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 252. Joe AW, Yi L, Natarajan A, Le Grand F, So L, Wang J, Rudnicki MA, Rossi FM. Muscle injury activates resident fibro/adipogenic progenitors that facilitate myogenesis. Nat Cell Biol 12: 153–163, 2010 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 253. Jones JI, Clemmons DR. Insulin-like growth factors and their binding proteins: biological actions. Endocr Rev 16: 3–34, 1995 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 254. Joubert Y, Tobin C. Satellite cell proliferation and increase in the number of myonuclei induced by testosterone in the levator ani muscle of the adult female rat. Dev Biol 131: 550–557, 1989 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 255. Joubert Y, Tobin C. Testosterone treatment results in quiescent satellite cells being activated and recruited into cell cycle in rat levator ani muscle. Dev Biol 169: 286–294, 1995 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 256. Kablar B, Asakura A, Krastel K, Ying C, May LL, Goldhamer DJ, Rudnicki MA. MyoD and Myf-5 define the specification of musculature of distinct embryonic origin. Biochem Cell Biol 76: 1079–1091, 1998 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 257. Kablar B, Krastel K, Tajbakhsh S, Rudnicki MA. Myf5 and MyoD activation define independent myogenic compartments during embryonic development. Dev Biol 258: 307–318, 2003 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 258. Kablar B, Krastel K, Ying C, Asakura A, Tapscott SJ, Rudnicki MA. MyoD and Myf-5 differentially regulate the development of limb versus trunk skeletal muscle. Development 124: 4729–4738, 1997 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 259. Kablar B, Krastel K, Ying C, Tapscott SJ, Goldhamer DJ, Rudnicki MA. Myogenic determination occurs independently in somites and limb buds. Dev Biol 206: 219–231, 1999 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 260. Kablar B, Rudnicki MA. Skeletal muscle development in the mouse embryo. Histol Histopathol 15: 649–656, 2000 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 261. Kalcheim C, Ben-Yair R. Cell rearrangements during development of the somite and its derivatives. Curr Opin Genet Dev 15: 371–380, 2005 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 262. Kaminski HJ, Andrade FH. Nitric oxide: biologic effects on muscle and role in muscle diseases. Neuromuscul Disord 11: 517–524, 2001 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 263. Kanisicak O, Mendez JJ, Yamamoto S, Yamamoto M, Goldhamer DJ. Progenitors of skeletal muscle satellite cells express the muscle determination gene, MyoD. Dev Biol 332: 131–141, 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 264. Kardon G, Campbell JK, Tabin CJ. Local extrinsic signals determine muscle and endothelial cell fate and patterning in the vertebrate limb. Dev Cell 3: 533–545, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 265. Kassar-Duchossoy L, Giacone E, Gayraud-Morel B, Jory A, Gomes D, Tajbakhsh S. Pax3/Pax7 mark a novel population of primitive myogenic cells during development. Genes Dev 19: 1426–1431, 2005 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 266. Kastner S, Elias MC, Rivera AJ, Yablonka-Reuveni Z. Gene expression patterns of the fibroblast growth factors and their receptors during myogenesis of rat satellite cells. J Histochem Cytochem 48: 1079–1096, 2000 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 267. Kazuki Y, Hiratsuka M, Takiguchi M, Osaki M, Kajitani N, Hoshiya H, Hiramatsu K, Yoshino T, Kazuki K, Ishihara C, Takehara S, Higaki K, Nakagawa M, Takahashi K, Yamanaka S, Oshimura M. Complete genetic correction of ips cells from Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Mol Ther 18: 386–393, 2010 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 268. Keller P, Penkowa M, Keller C, Steensberg A, Fischer CP, Giralt M, Hidalgo J, Pedersen BK. Interleukin-6 receptor expression in contracting human skeletal muscle: regulating role of IL-6. FASEB J 19: 1181–1183, 2005 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 269. Kelly AM. Perisynaptic satellite cells in the developing and mature rat soleus muscle. Anat Rec 190: 891–903, 1978 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 270. Kherif S, Lafuma C, Dehaupas M, Lachkar S, Fournier JG, Verdiere-Sahuque M, Fardeau M, Alameddine HS. Expression of matrix metalloproteinases 2 and 9 in regenerating skeletal muscle: a study in experimentally injured and mdx muscles. Dev Biol 205: 158–170, 1999 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 271. Kim CH, Neiswender H, Baik EJ, Xiong WC, Mei L. Beta-catenin interacts with MyoD and regulates its transcription activity. Mol Cell Biol 28: 2941–2951, 2008 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 272. Kitamoto T, Hanaoka K. Notch3 null mutation in mice causes muscle hyperplasia by repetitive muscle regeneration. Stem Cells 28: 2205–2216, 2010 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 273. Kitzmann M, Carnac G, Vandromme M, Primig M, Lamb NJ, Fernandez A. The muscle regulatory factors MyoD and myf-5 undergo distinct cell cycle-specific expression in muscle cells. J Cell Biol 142: 1447–1459, 1998 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 274. Knudsen KA, Horwitz AF. Tandem events in myoblast fusion. Dev Biol 58: 328–338, 1977 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 275. Kobzik L, Reid MB, Bredt DS, Stamler JS. Nitric oxide in skeletal muscle. Nature 372: 546–548, 1994 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 276. Konigsberg IR. Clonal analysis of myogenesis. Science 140: 1273–1284, 1963 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 277. Konigsberg UR, Lipton BH, Konigsberg IR. The regenerative response of single mature muscle fibers isolated in vitro. Dev Biol 45: 260–275, 1975 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 278. Kovanen V. Intramuscular extracellular matrix: complex environment of muscle cells. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 30: 20–25, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 279. Kuang S, Charge SB, Seale P, Huh M, Rudnicki MA. Distinct roles for Pax7 and Pax3 in adult regenerative myogenesis. J Cell Biol 172: 103–113, 2006 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 280. Kuang S, Kuroda K, Le Grand F, Rudnicki MA. Asymmetric self-renewal and commitment of satellite stem cells in muscle. Cell 129: 999–1010, 2007 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 281. Kurosu H, Ogawa Y, Miyoshi M, Yamamoto M, Nandi A, Rosenblatt KP, Baum MG, Schiavi S, Hu MC, Moe OW, Kuro-o M. Regulation of fibroblast growth factor-23 signaling by klotho. J Biol Chem 281: 6120–6123, 2006 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 282. Kuschel R, Yablonka-Reuveni Z, Bornemann A. Satellite cells on isolated myofibers from normal and denervated adult rat muscle. J Histochem Cytochem 47: 1375–1384, 1999 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 283. Kust BM, Copray JC, Brouwer N, Troost D, Boddeke HW. Elevated levels of neurotrophins in human biceps brachii tissue of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Exp Neurol 177: 419–427, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 284. Kutcher ME, Herman IM. The pericyte: cellular regulator of microvascular blood flow. Microvasc Res 77: 235–246, 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 285. L'Honore A, Lamb NJ, Vandromme M, Turowski P, Carnac G, Fernandez A. MyoD distal regulatory region contains an SRF binding CArG element required for MyoD expression in skeletal myoblasts and during muscle regeneration. Mol Biol Cell 14: 2151–2162, 2003 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 286. L'Honore A, Rana V, Arsic N, Franckhauser C, Lamb NJ, Fernandez A. Identification of a new hybrid serum response factor and myocyte enhancer factor 2-binding element in MyoD enhancer required for MyoD expression during myogenesis. Mol Biol Cell 18: 1992–2001, 2007 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 287. LaBarge MA, Blau HM. Biological progression from adult bone marrow to mononucleate muscle stem cell to multinucleate muscle fiber in response to injury. Cell 111: 589–601, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 288. Langsdorf A, Do AT, Kusche-Gullberg M, Emerson CP, Jr, Ai X. Sulfs are regulators of growth factor signaling for satellite cell differentiation and muscle regeneration. Dev Biol 311: 464–477, 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 289. Lansdorp PM. Immortal strands? Give me a break. Cell 129: 1244–1247, 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 290. Larsen BD, Rampalli S, Burns LE, Brunette S, Dilworth FJ, Megeney LA. Caspase 3/caspase-activated DNase promote cell differentiation by inducing DNA strand breaks. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107: 4230–4235, 2010 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 291. Lassar AB, Davis RL, Wright WE, Kadesch T, Murre C, Voronova A, Baltimore D, Weintraub H. Functional activity of myogenic HLH proteins requires hetero-oligomerization with E12/E47-like proteins in vivo. Cell 66: 305–315, 1991 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 292. Laterza OF, Lim L, Garrett-Engele PW, Vlasakova K, Muniappa N, Tanaka WK, Johnson JM, Sina JF, Fare TL, Sistare FD, Glaab WE. Plasma MicroRNAs as sensitive and specific biomarkers of tissue injury. Clin Chem 55: 1977–1983, 2009 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 293. Le Grand F, Jones AE, Seale V, Scime A, Rudnicki MA. Wnt7a activates the planar cell polarity pathway to drive the symmetric expansion of satellite stem cells. Cell Stem Cell 4: 535–547, 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 294. Lee JY, Qu-Petersen Z, Cao B, Kimura S, Jankowski R, Cummins J, Usas A, Gates C, Robbins P, Wernig A, Huard J. Clonal isolation of muscle-derived cells capable of enhancing muscle regeneration and bone healing. J Cell Biol 150: 1085–1100, 2000 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 295. Lefaucheur JP, Gjata B, Lafont H, Sebille A. Angiogenic and inflammatory responses following skeletal muscle injury are altered by immune neutralization of endogenous basic fibroblast growth factor, insulin-like growth factor-1 and transforming growth factor-beta 1. J Neuroimmunol 70: 37–44, 1996 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 296. Lefaucheur JP, Sebille A. Basic fibroblast growth factor promotes in vivo muscle regeneration in murine muscular dystrophy. Neurosci Lett 202: 121–124, 1995 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 297. Lefaucheur JP, Sebille A. Muscle regeneration following injury can be modified in vivo by immune neutralization of basic fibroblast growth factor, transforming growth factor beta 1 or insulin-like growth factor I. J Neuroimmunol 57: 85–91, 1995 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 298. Lemercier C, To RQ, Carrasco RA, Konieczny SF. The basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor Mist1 functions as a transcriptional repressor of myoD. EMBO J 17: 1412–1422, 1998 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 299. Lepper C, Conway SJ, Fan CM. Adult satellite cells and embryonic muscle progenitors have distinct genetic requirements. Nature 460: 627–631, 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 300. Lepper C, Fan CM. Inducible lineage tracing of Pax7-descendant cells reveals embryonic origin of adult satellite cells. Genesis 48: 424–436, 2010 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 301. Lepper C, Partridge TA, Fan CM. An absolute requirement for Pax7-positive satellite cells in acute injury-induced skeletal muscle regeneration. Development 138: 3639–3646, 2011 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 302. Leri A, Kajstura J, Anversa P, Frishman WH. Myocardial regeneration and stem cell repair. Curr Probl Cardiol 33: 91–153, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 303. Lescaudron L, Peltekian E, Fontaine-Perus J, Paulin D, Zampieri M, Garcia L, Parrish E. Blood borne macrophages are essential for the triggering of muscle regeneration following muscle transplant. Neuromuscul Disord 9: 72–80, 1999 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 304. Leshem Y, Gitelman I, Ponzetto C, Halevy O. Preferential binding of Grb2 or phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase to the met receptor has opposite effects on HGF-induced myoblast proliferation. Exp Cell Res 274: 288–298, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 305. Leshem Y, Halevy O. Phosphorylation of pRb is required for HGF-induced muscle cell proliferation and is p27kip1-dependent. J Cell Physiol 191: 173–182, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 306. Leshem Y, Spicer DB, Gal-Levi R, Halevy O. Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) inhibits skeletal muscle cell differentiation: a role for the bHLH protein twist and the cdk inhibitor p27. J Cell Physiol 184: 101–109, 2000 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 307. Lewis MI, Horvitz GD, Clemmons DR, Fournier M. Role of IGF-I and IGF-binding proteins within diaphragm muscle in modulating the effects of nandrolone. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 282: E483–E490, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 308. Li L, Heller-Harrison R, Czech M, Olson EN. Cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase inhibits the activity of myogenic helix-loop-helix proteins. Mol Cell Biol 12: 4478–4485, 1992 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 309. Li L, Zhou J, James G, Heller-Harrison R, Czech MP, Olson EN. FGF inactivates myogenic helix-loop-helix proteins through phosphorylation of a conserved protein kinase C site in their DNA-binding domains. Cell 71: 1181–1194, 1992 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 310. Li Y, Foster W, Deasy BM, Chan Y, Prisk V, Tang Y, Cummins J, Huard J. Transforming growth factor-beta1 induces the differentiation of myogenic cells into fibrotic cells in injured skeletal muscle: a key event in muscle fibrogenesis. Am J Pathol 164: 1007–1019, 2004 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 311. Lindstrom M, Pedrosa-Domellof F, Thornell LE. Satellite cell heterogeneity with respect to expression of MyoD, myogenin, Dlk1 and c-Met in human skeletal muscle: application to a cohort of power lifters and sedentary men. Histochem Cell Biol 134: 371–385, 2010 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 312. Lipton BH, Konigsberg IR. A fine-structural analysis of the fusion of myogenic cells. J Cell Biol 53: 348–364, 1972 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 313. Liu H, Fergusson MM, Castilho RM, Liu J, Cao L, Chen J, Malide D, Rovira II, Schimel D, Kuo CJ, Gutkind JS, Hwang PM, Finkel T. Augmented Wnt signaling in a mammalian model of accelerated aging. Science 317: 803–806, 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 314. Liu J, Aoki M, Illa I, Wu C, Fardeau M, Angelini C, Serrano C, Urtizberea JA, Hentati F, Hamida MB, Bohlega S, Culper EJ, Amato AA, Bossie K, Oeltjen J, Bejaoui K, McKenna-Yasek D, Hosler BA, Schurr E, Arahata K, de Jong PJ, Brown RH., Jr Dysferlin, a novel skeletal muscle gene, is mutated in Miyoshi myopathy and limb girdle muscular dystrophy. Nat Genet 20: 31–36, 1998 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 315. Liu JP, Baker J, Perkins AS, Robertson EJ, Efstratiadis A. Mice carrying null mutations of the genes encoding insulin-like growth factor I (Igf-1) and type 1 IGF receptor (Igf1r). Cell 75: 59–72, 1993 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 316. Liu Y, Gao L, Zuba-Surma EK, Peng X, Kucia M, Ratajczak MZ, Wang W, Enzmann V, Kaplan HJ, Dean DC. Identification of small Sca-1(+), Lin(−), and CD45(−) multipotential cells in the neonatal murine retina. Exp Hematol 37: 1096–1107, 2009 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 317. Loh KC, Leong WI, Carlson ME, Oskouian B, Kumar A, Fyrst H, Zhang M, Proia RL, Hoffman EP, Saba JD. Sphingosine-1-phosphate enhances satellite cell activation in dystrophic muscles through a S1PR2/STAT3 signaling pathway. PLoS One 7: e37218, 2012 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 318. Lu A, Cummins JH, Pollett JB, Cao B, Sun B, Rudnicki MA, Huard J. Isolation of myogenic progenitor populations from Pax7-deficient skeletal muscle based on adhesion characteristics. Gene Ther 15: 1116–1125, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 319. Lu J, McKinsey TA, Zhang CL, Olson EN. Regulation of skeletal myogenesis by association of the MEF2 transcription factor with class II histone deacetylases. Mol Cell 6: 233–244, 2000 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 320. Luo D, Renault VM, Rando TA. The regulation of Notch signaling in muscle stem cell activation and postnatal myogenesis. Semin Cell Dev Biol 16: 612–622, 2005 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 321. Luque E, Pena J, Martin P, Jimena I, Vaamonde R. Capillary supply during development of individual regenerating muscle fibers. Anat Histol Embryol 24: 87–89, 1995 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 322. Ma DK, Bonaguidi MA, Ming GL, Song H. Adult neural stem cells in the mammalian central nervous system. Cell Res 19: 672–682, 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 323. Machida S, Booth FW. Insulin-like growth factor 1 and muscle growth: implication for satellite cell proliferation. Proc Nutr Soc 63: 337–340, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 324. Mackey AL, Kjaer M, Charifi N, Henriksson J, Bojsen-Moller J, Holm L, Kadi F. Assessment of satellite cell number and activity status in human skeletal muscle biopsies. Muscle Nerve 40: 455–465, 2009 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 325. Mal A, Sturniolo M, Schiltz RL, Ghosh MK, Harter ML. A role for histone deacetylase HDAC1 in modulating the transcriptional activity of MyoD: inhibition of the myogenic program. EMBO J 20: 1739–1753, 2001 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 326. Mansouri A, Stoykova A, Torres M, Gruss P. Dysgenesis of cephalic neural crest derivatives in Pax7−/− mutant mice. Development 122: 831–838, 1996 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 327. Matheny RW, Jr, Nindl BC, Adamo ML. Minireview: Mechano-growth factor: a putative product of IGF-I gene expression involved in tissue repair and regeneration. Endocrinology 151: 865–875, 2010 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 328. Matsuda R, Nishikawa A, Tanaka H. Visualization of dystrophic muscle fibers in mdx mouse by vital staining with Evans blue: evidence of apoptosis in dystrophin-deficient muscle. J Biochem 118: 959–964, 1995 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 329. Mauro A. Satellite cell of skeletal muscle fibers. J Biophys Biochem Cytol 9: 493–495, 1961 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 330. Mayer U. Integrins: redundant or important players in skeletal muscle? J Biol Chem 278: 14587–14590, 2003 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 331. McGann CJ, Odelberg SJ, Keating MT. Mammalian myotube dedifferentiation induced by newt regeneration extract. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98: 13699–13704, 2001 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 332. McGeachie JK, Grounds MD. Initiation and duration of muscle precursor replication after mild and severe injury to skeletal muscle of mice. An autoradiographic study. Cell Tissue Res 248: 125–130, 1987 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 333. McKay BR, De Lisio M, Johnston AP, O'Reilly CE, Phillips SM, Tarnopolsky MA, Parise G. Association of interleukin-6 signalling with the muscle stem cell response following muscle-lengthening contractions in humans. PLoS One 4: e6027, 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 334. McLoon LK, Wirtschafter J. Activated satellite cells in extraocular muscles of normal adult monkeys and humans. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 44: 1927–1932, 2003 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 335. Meech R, Gomez M, Woolley C, Barro M, Hulin JA, Walcott EC, Delgado J, Makarenkova HP. The homeobox transcription factor Barx2 regulates plasticity of young primary myofibers. PLoS One 5: e11612, 2010 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 336. Meech R, Gonzalez KN, Barro M, Gromova A, Zhuang L, Hulin JA, Makarenkova HP. Barx2 is expressed in satellite cells and is required for normal muscle growth and regeneration. Stem Cells 30: 253–265, 2012 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 337. Meeson AP, Hawke TJ, Graham S, Jiang N, Elterman J, Hutcheson K, Dimaio JM, Gallardo TD, Garry DJ. Cellular and molecular regulation of skeletal muscle side population cells. Stem Cells 22: 1305–1320, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 338. Megeney LA, Kablar B, Garrett K, Anderson JE, Rudnicki MA. MyoD is required for myogenic stem cell function in adult skeletal muscle. Genes Dev 10: 1173–1183, 1996 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 339. Meignin C, Alvarez-Garcia I, Davis I, Palacios IM. The salvador-warts-hippo pathway is required for epithelial proliferation and axis specification in Drosophila. Curr Biol 17: 1871–1878, 2007 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 340. Menetrey J, Kasemkijwattana C, Day CS, Bosch P, Vogt M, Fu FH, Moreland MS, Huard J. Growth factors improve muscle healing in vivo. J Bone Joint Surg Br 82: 131–137, 2000 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 341. Merly F, Lescaudron L, Rouaud T, Crossin F, Gardahaut MF. Macrophages enhance muscle satellite cell proliferation and delay their differentiation. Muscle Nerve 22: 724–732, 1999 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 342. Miller KJ, Thaloor D, Matteson S, Pavlath GK. Hepatocyte growth factor affects satellite cell activation and differentiation in regenerating skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 278: C174–C181, 2000 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 343. Minasi MG, Riminucci M, De Angelis L, Borello U, Berarducci B, Innocenzi A, Caprioli A, Sirabella D, Baiocchi M, De Maria R, Boratto R, Jaffredo T, Broccoli V, Bianco P, Cossu G. The meso-angioblast: a multipotent, self-renewing cell that originates from the dorsal aorta and differentiates into most mesodermal tissues. Development 129: 2773–2783, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 344. Minetti C, Sotgia F, Bruno C, Scartezzini P, Broda P, Bado M, Masetti E, Mazzocco M, Egeo A, Donati MA, Volonte D, Galbiati F, Cordone G, Bricarelli FD, Lisanti MP, Zara F. Mutations in the caveolin-3 gene cause autosomal dominant limb-girdle muscular dystrophy. Nat Genet 18: 365–368, 1998 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 345. Mitchell KJ, Pannerec A, Cadot B, Parlakian A, Besson V, Gomes ER, Marazzi G, Sassoon DA. Identification and characterization of a non-satellite cell muscle resident progenitor during postnatal development. Nat Cell Biol 12: 257–266, 2010 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 346. Mizuno Y, Chang H, Umeda K, Niwa A, Iwasa T, Awaya T, Fukada SI, Yamamoto H, Yamanaka S, Nakahata T, Heike T. Generation of skeletal muscle stem/progenitor cells from murine induced pluripotent stem cells. FASEB J 2010 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 347. Moelling K, Schad K, Bosse M, Zimmermann S, Schweneker M. Regulation of Raf-Akt Cross-talk. J Biol Chem 277: 31099–31106, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 348. Mokalled MH, Johnson AN, Creemers EE, Olson EN. MASTR directs MyoD-dependent satellite cell differentiation during skeletal muscle regeneration. Genes Dev 26: 190–202, 2012 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 349. Montarras D, Lindon C, Pinset C, Domeyne P. Cultured myf5 null and myoD null muscle precursor cells display distinct growth defects. Biol Cell 92: 565–572, 2000 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 350. Montarras D, Morgan J, Collins C, Relaix F, Zaffran S, Cumano A, Partridge T, Buckingham M. Direct isolation of satellite cells for skeletal muscle regeneration. Science 309: 2064–2067, 2005 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 351. Moresi V, Pristera A, Scicchitano BM, Molinaro M, Teodori L, Sassoon D, Adamo S, Coletti D. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha inhibition of skeletal muscle regeneration is mediated by a caspase-dependent stem cell response. Stem Cells 26: 997–1008, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 352. Morosetti R, Mirabella M, Gliubizzi C, Broccolini A, De Angelis L, Tagliafico E, Sampaolesi M, Gidaro T, Papacci M, Roncaglia E, Rutella S, Ferrari S, Tonali PA, Ricci E, Cossu G. MyoD expression restores defective myogenic differentiation of human mesoangioblasts from inclusion-body myositis muscle. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103: 16995–17000, 2006 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 353. Morrison JI, Loof S, He P, Simon A. Salamander limb regeneration involves the activation of a multipotent skeletal muscle satellite cell population. J Cell Biol 172: 433–440, 2006 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 354. Morrison SJ, Kimble J. Asymmetric and symmetric stem-cell divisions in development and cancer. Nature 441: 1068–1074, 2006 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 355. Moss FP, Leblond CP. Nature of dividing nuclei in skeletal muscle of growing rats. J Cell Biol 44: 459–462, 1970 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 356. Mourikis P, Sambasivan R, Castel D, Rocheteau P, Bizzarro V, Tajbakhsh S. A critical requirement for notch signaling in maintenance of the quiescent skeletal muscle stem cell state. Stem Cells 30: 243–252, 2012 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 357. Mourkioti F, Rosenthal N. IGF-1, inflammation and stem cells: interactions during muscle regeneration. Trends Immunol 26: 535–542, 2005 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 358. Mousavi K, Jasmin BJ. BDNF is expressed in skeletal muscle satellite cells and inhibits myogenic differentiation. J Neurosci 26: 5739–5749, 2006 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 359. Mu X, Peng H, Pan H, Huard J, Li Y. Study of muscle cell dedifferentiation after skeletal muscle injury of mice with a Cre-Lox system. PLoS One 6: e16699, 2011 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 360. Mulvaney DR, Marple DN, Merkel RA. Proliferation of skeletal muscle satellite cells after castration and administration of testosterone propionate. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 188: 40–45, 1988 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 361. Murphy MM, Lawson JA, Mathew SJ, Hutcheson DA, Kardon G. Satellite cells, connective tissue fibroblasts and their interactions are crucial for muscle regeneration. Development 138: 3625–3637, 2011 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 362. Murre C, McCaw PS, Baltimore D. A new DNA binding and dimerization motif in immunoglobulin enhancer binding, daughterless, MyoD, and myc proteins. Cell 56: 777–783, 1989 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 363. Murre C, McCaw PS, Vaessin H, Caudy M, Jan LY, Jan YN, Cabrera CV, Buskin JN, Hauschka SD, Lassar AB. Interactions between heterologous helix-loop-helix proteins generate complexes that bind specifically to a common DNA sequence. Cell 58: 537–544, 1989 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 364. Musaro A, Barberi L. Isolation and culture of mouse satellite cells. Methods Mol Biol 633: 101–111, 2010 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 365. Musaro A, McCullagh K, Paul A, Houghton L, Dobrowolny G, Molinaro M, Barton ER, Sweeney HL, Rosenthal N. Localized Igf-1 transgene expression sustains hypertrophy and regeneration in senescent skeletal muscle. Nat Genet 27: 195–200, 2001 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 366. Musaro A, McCullagh KJ, Naya FJ, Olson EN, Rosenthal N. IGF-1 induces skeletal myocyte hypertrophy through calcineurin in association with GATA-2 and NF-ATc1. Nature 400: 581–585, 1999 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 367. Musaro A, Rosenthal N. Maturation of the myogenic program is induced by postmitotic expression of insulin-like growth factor I. Mol Cell Biol 19: 3115–3124, 1999 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 368. Muskiewicz KR, Frank NY, Flint AF, Gussoni E. Myogenic potential of muscle side and main population cells after intravenous injection into sub-lethally irradiated mdx mice. J Histochem Cytochem 53: 861–873, 2005 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 369. Nagata Y, Kobayashi H, Umeda M, Ohta N, Kawashima S, Zammit PS, Matsuda R. Sphingomyelin levels in the plasma membrane correlate with the activation state of muscle satellite cells. J Histochem Cytochem 54: 375–384, 2006 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 370. Nagata Y, Partridge TA, Matsuda R, Zammit PS. Entry of muscle satellite cells into the cell cycle requires sphingolipid signaling. J Cell Biol 174: 245–253, 2006 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 371. Nakagawa M, Koyanagi M, Tanabe K, Takahashi K, Ichisaka T, Aoi T, Okita K, Mochiduki Y, Takizawa N, Yamanaka S. Generation of induced pluripotent stem cells without Myc from mouse and human fibroblasts. Nat Biotechnol 26: 101–106, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 372. Negroni E, Riederer I, Chaouch S, Belicchi M, Razini P, Di Santo J, Torrente Y, Butler-Browne GS, Mouly V. In vivo myogenic potential of human CD133+ muscle-derived stem cells: a quantitative study. Mol Ther 17: 1771–1778, 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 373. Nelson WJ, Nusse R. Convergence of Wnt, beta-catenin, and cadherin pathways. Science 303: 1483–1487, 2004 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 374. Nguyen HT, Frasch M. MicroRNAs in muscle differentiation: lessons from Drosophila and beyond. Curr Opin Genet Dev 16: 533–539, 2006 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 375. Nguyen HX, Tidball JG. Interactions between neutrophils and macrophages promote macrophage killing of rat muscle cells in vitro. J Physiol 547: 125–132, 2003 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 376. Nicolas N, Marazzi G, Kelley K, Sassoon D. Embryonic deregulation of muscle stress signaling pathways leads to altered postnatal stem cell behavior and a failure in postnatal muscle growth. Dev Biol 281: 171–183, 2005 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 377. Nishimura T, Nakamura K, Kishioka Y, Kato-Mori Y, Wakamatsu J, Hattori A. Inhibition of matrix metalloproteinases suppresses the migration of skeletal muscle cells. J Muscle Res Cell Motil 29: 37–44, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 378. Novitch BG, Mulligan GJ, Jacks T, Lassar AB. Skeletal muscle cells lacking the retinoblastoma protein display defects in muscle gene expression and accumulate in S and G2 phases of the cell cycle. J Cell Biol 135: 441–456, 1996 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 379. Odelberg SJ, Kollhoff A, Keating MT. Dedifferentiation of mammalian myotubes induced by msx1. Cell 103: 1099–1109, 2000 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 380. Ohlstein B, Kai T, Decotto E, Spradling A. The stem cell niche: theme and variations. Curr Opin Cell Biol 16: 693–699, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 381. Ohnishi T, Daikuhara Y. Hepatocyte growth factor/scatter factor in development, inflammation and carcinogenesis: its expression and role in oral tissues. Arch Oral Biol 48: 797–804, 2003 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 382. Ojima K, Uezumi A, Miyoshi H, Masuda S, Morita Y, Fukase A, Hattori A, Nakauchi H, Miyagoe-Suzuki Y, Takeda S. Mac-1(low) early myeloid cells in the bone marrow-derived SP fraction migrate into injured skeletal muscle and participate in muscle regeneration. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 321: 1050–1061, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 383. Okada S, Nonaka I, Chou SM. Muscle fiber type differentiation and satellite cell populations in normally grown and neonatally denervated muscles in the rat. Acta Neuropathol 65: 90–98, 1984 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 384. Okita K, Ichisaka T, Yamanaka S. Generation of germline-competent induced pluripotent stem cells. Nature 448: 313–317, 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 385. Olguin HC, Yang Z, Tapscott SJ, Olwin BB. Reciprocal inhibition between Pax7 and muscle regulatory factors modulates myogenic cell fate determination. J Cell Biol 177: 769–779, 2007 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 386. Olwin BB, Rapraeger A. Repression of myogenic differentiation by aFGF, bFGF, and K-FGF is dependent on cellular heparan sulfate. J Cell Biol 118: 631–639, 1992 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 387. Ono Y, Boldrin L, Knopp P, Morgan JE, Zammit PS. Muscle satellite cells are a functionally heterogeneous population in both somite-derived and branchiomeric muscles. Dev Biol 337: 29–41, 2010 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 388. Ono Y, Masuda S, Nam HS, Benezra R, Miyagoe-Suzuki Y, Takeda S. Slow-dividing satellite cells retain long-term self-renewal ability in adult muscle. J Cell Sci 125: 1309–1317, 2012 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 389. Orimo S, Hiyamuta E, Arahata K, Sugita H. Analysis of inflammatory cells and complement C3 in bupivacaine-induced myonecrosis. Muscle Nerve 14: 515–520, 1991 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 390. Ornatsky OI, Cox DM, Tangirala P, Andreucci JJ, Quinn ZA, Wrana JL, Prywes R, Yu YT, McDermott JC. Post-translational control of the MEF2A transcriptional regulatory protein. Nucleic Acids Res 27: 2646–2654, 1999 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 391. Otto A, Schmidt C, Luke G, Allen S, Valasek P, Muntoni F, Lawrence-Watt D, Patel K. Canonical Wnt signalling induces satellite-cell proliferation during adult skeletal muscle regeneration. J Cell Sci 121: 2939–2950, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 392. Otto A, Schmidt C, Patel K. Pax3 and Pax7 expression and regulation in the avian embryo. Anat Embryol 211: 293–310, 2006 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 393. Oustanina S, Hause G, Braun T. Pax7 directs postnatal renewal and propagation of myogenic satellite cells but not their specification. EMBO J 23: 3430–3439, 2004 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 394. Pacher P, Beckman JS, Liaudet L. Nitric oxide and peroxynitrite in health and disease. Physiol Rev 87: 315–424, 2007 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 395. Pajcini KV, Corbel SY, Sage J, Pomerantz JH, Blau HM. Transient inactivation of Rb and ARF yields regenerative cells from postmitotic mammalian muscle. Cell Stem Cell 7: 198–213, 2010 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 396. Palacio J, Galdiz JB, Alvarez FJ, Orozco-Levi M, Lloreta J, Gea J. Procion orange tracer dye technique vs. identification of intrafibrillar fibronectin in the assessment of sarcolemmal damage. Eur J Clin Invest 32: 443–447, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 397. Paliwal P, Conboy IM. Inhibitors of tyrosine phosphatases and apoptosis reprogram lineage-marked differentiated muscle to myogenic progenitor cells. Chem Biol 18: 1153–1166, 2011 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 398. Pallafacchina G, Francois S, Regnault B, Czarny B, Dive V, Cumano A, Montarras D, Buckingham M. An adult tissue-specific stem cell in its niche: a gene profiling analysis of in vivo quiescent and activated muscle satellite cells. Stem Cell Res 4: 77–91, 2010 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 399. Palumbo R, Sampaolesi M, De Marchis F, Tonlorenzi R, Colombetti S, Mondino A, Cossu G, Bianchi ME. Extracellular HMGB1, a signal of tissue damage, induces mesoangioblast migration and proliferation. J Cell Biol 164: 441–449, 2004 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 400. Parise G, McKinnell IW, Rudnicki MA. Muscle satellite cell and atypical myogenic progenitor response following exercise. Muscle Nerve 37: 611–619, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 401. Pasquinelli G, Pacilli A, Alviano F, Foroni L, Ricci F, Valente S, Orrico C, Lanzoni G, Buzzi M, Luigi Tazzari P, Pagliaro P, Stella A, Paolo Bagnara G. Multidistrict human mesenchymal vascular cells: pluripotency and stemness characteristics. Cytotherapy 12: 275–287, 2010 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 402. Patruno M, Caliaro F, Martinello T, Mascarello F. Expression of the paired box domain Pax7 protein in myogenic cells isolated from the porcine semitendinosus muscle after birth. Tissue Cell 40: 1–6, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 403. Pedersen BK, Febbraio MA. Muscle as an endocrine organ: focus on muscle-derived interleukin-6. Physiol Rev 88: 1379–1406, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 404. Peng H, Huard J. Muscle-derived stem cells for musculoskeletal tissue regeneration and repair. Transpl Immunol 12: 311–319, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 405. Penn BH, Bergstrom DA, Dilworth FJ, Bengal E, Tapscott SJ. A MyoD-generated feed-forward circuit temporally patterns gene expression during skeletal muscle differentiation. Genes Dev 18: 2348–2353, 2004 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 406. Peppiatt CM, Howarth C, Mobbs P, Attwell D. Bidirectional control of CNS capillary diameter by pericytes. Nature 443: 700–704, 2006 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 407. Perez-Ruiz A, Ono Y, Gnocchi VF, Zammit PS. beta-Catenin promotes self-renewal of skeletal-muscle satellite cells. J Cell Sci 121: 1373–1382, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 408. Petropoulos H, Skerjanc IS. Beta-catenin is essential and sufficient for skeletal myogenesis in P19 cells. J Biol Chem 277: 15393–15399, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 409. Philippou A, Halapas A, Maridaki M, Koutsilieris M. Type I insulin-like growth factor receptor signaling in skeletal muscle regeneration and hypertrophy. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact 7: 208–218, 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 410. Phillips WD, Bennett MR. Elimination of distributed synaptic acetylcholine receptor clusters on developing avian fast-twitch muscle fibres accompanies loss of polyneuronal innervation. J Neurocytol 16: 785–797, 1987 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 411. Pietsch J. The effects of colchicine on regeneration of mouse skeletal muscle. Anat Rec 167–172, 1961 [Google Scholar] 412. Polesello C, Tapon N. Salvador-warts-hippo signaling promotes Drosophila posterior follicle cell maturation downstream of notch. Curr Biol 17: 1864–1870, 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 413. Polesskaya A, Seale P, Rudnicki MA. Wnt signaling induces the myogenic specification of resident CD45+ adult stem cells during muscle regeneration. Cell 113: 841–852, 2003 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 414. Popescu LM, Manole E, Serboiu CS, Manole CG, Suciu LC, Gherghiceanu M, Popescu BO. Identification of telocytes in skeletal muscle interstitium: implication for muscle regeneration. J Cell Mol Med 15: 1379–1392, 2011 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 415. Pouget C, Pottin K, Jaffredo T. Sclerotomal origin of vascular smooth muscle cells and pericytes in the embryo. Dev Biol 315: 437–447, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 416. Prior BM, Lloyd PG, Yang HT, Terjung RL. Exercise-induced vascular remodeling. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 31: 26–33, 2003 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 417. Prockop DJ. Marrow stromal cells as stem cells for nonhematopoietic tissues. Science 276: 71–74, 1997 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 418. Przybylski RJ, Blumberg JM. Ultrastructural aspects of myogenesis in the chick. Lab Invest 15: 836–863, 1966 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 419. Puri PL, Avantaggiati ML, Balsano C, Sang N, Graessmann A, Giordano A, Levrero M. p300 is required for MyoD-dependent cell cycle arrest and muscle-specific gene transcription. EMBO J 16: 369–383, 1997 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 420. Puri PL, Sartorelli V. Regulation of muscle regulatory factors by DNA-binding, interacting proteins, and post-transcriptional modifications. J Cell Physiol 185: 155–173, 2000 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 421. Qu-Petersen Z, Deasy B, Jankowski R, Ikezawa M, Cummins J, Pruchnic R, Mytinger J, Cao B, Gates C, Wernig A, Huard J. Identification of a novel population of muscle stem cells in mice: potential for muscle regeneration. J Cell Biol 157: 851–864, 2002 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 422. Qu Z, Balkir L, van Deutekom JC, Robbins PD, Pruchnic R, Huard J. Development of approaches to improve cell survival in myoblast transfer therapy. J Cell Biol 142: 1257–1267, 1998 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 423. Quinlan JG, Lyden SP, Cambier DM, Johnson SR, Michaels SE, Denman DL. Radiation inhibition of mdx mouse muscle regeneration: dose and age factors. Muscle Nerve 18: 201–206, 1995 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 424. Rampalli S, Li L, Mak E, Ge K, Brand M, Tapscott SJ, Dilworth FJ. p38 MAPK signaling regulates recruitment of Ash2L-containing methyltransferase complexes to specific genes during differentiation. Nat Struct Mol Biol 14: 1150–1156, 2007 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 425. Rando TA, Blau HM. Primary mouse myoblast purification, characterization, and transplantation for cell-mediated gene therapy. J Cell Biol 125: 1275–1287, 1994 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 426. Rantanen J, Hurme T, Lukka R, Heino J, Kalimo H. Satellite cell proliferation and the expression of myogenin and desmin in regenerating skeletal muscle: evidence for two different populations of satellite cells. Lab Invest 72: 341–347, 1995 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 427. Rapraeger AC. Syndecan-regulated receptor signaling. J Cell Biol 149: 995–998, 2000 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 428. Rash JE, Fambrough D. Ultrastructural and electrophysiological correlates of cell coupling and cytoplasmic fusion during myogenesis in vitro. Dev Biol 30: 166–186, 1973 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 429. Ratajczak MZ, Majka M, Kucia M, Drukala J, Pietrzkowski Z, Peiper S, Janowska-Wieczorek A. Expression of functional CXCR4 by muscle satellite cells and secretion of SDF-1 by muscle-derived fibroblasts is associated with the presence of both muscle progenitors in bone marrow and hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells in muscles. Stem Cells 21: 363–371, 2003 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 430. Rawlings JS, Rosler KM, Harrison DA. The JAK/STAT signaling pathway. J Cell Sci 117: 1281–1283, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 431. Relaix F, Montarras D, Zaffran S, Gayraud-Morel B, Rocancourt D, Tajbakhsh S, Mansouri A, Cumano A, Buckingham M. Pax3 and Pax7 have distinct and overlapping functions in adult muscle progenitor cells. J Cell Biol 172: 91–102, 2006 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 432. Relaix F, Polimeni M, Rocancourt D, Ponzetto C, Schafer BW, Buckingham M. The transcriptional activator PAX3-FKHR rescues the defects of Pax3 mutant mice but induces a myogenic gain-of-function phenotype with ligand-independent activation of Met signaling in vivo. Genes Dev 17: 2950–2965, 2003 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 433. Relaix F, Rocancourt D, Mansouri A, Buckingham M. Divergent functions of murine Pax3 and Pax7 in limb muscle development. Genes Dev 18: 1088–1105, 2004 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 434. Relaix F, Rocancourt D, Mansouri A, Buckingham M. A Pax3/Pax7-dependent population of skeletal muscle progenitor cells. Nature 435: 948–953, 2005 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 435. Relaix F, Weng X, Marazzi G, Yang E, Copeland N, Jenkins N, Spence SE, Sassoon D. Pw1, a novel zinc finger gene implicated in the myogenic and neuronal lineages. Dev Biol 177: 383–396, 1996 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 436. Ren H, Yin P, Duan C. IGFBP-5 regulates muscle cell differentiation by binding to IGF-II and switching on the IGF-II auto-regulation loop. J Cell Biol 182: 979–991, 2008 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 437. Reznik M. Thymidine-3H uptake by satellite cells of regenerating skeletal muscle. J Cell Biol 40: 568–571, 1969 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 438. Riuzzi F, Sorci G, Sagheddu R, Donato R. HMGB1-RAGE regulates muscle satellite cell homeostasis through p38-MAPK- and myogenin-dependent repression of Pax7 transcription. J Cell Sci 125: 1440–1454, 2012 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 439. Rivier F, Alkan O, Flint AF, Muskiewicz K, Allen PD, Leboulch P, Gussoni E. Role of bone marrow cell trafficking in replenishing skeletal muscle SP and MP cell populations. J Cell Sci 117: 1979–1988, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 440. Robertson TA, Maley MA, Grounds MD, Papadimitriou JM. The role of macrophages in skeletal muscle regeneration with particular reference to chemotaxis. Exp Cell Res 207: 321–331, 1993 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 441. Rodeheffer MS, Birsoy K, Friedman JM. Identification of white adipocyte progenitor cells in vivo. Cell 135: 240–249, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 442. Rodrigues Ade C, Schmalbruch H. Satellite cells and myonuclei in long-term denervated rat muscles. Anat Rec 243: 430–437, 1995 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 443. Rosania GR, Chang YT, Perez O, Sutherlin D, Dong H, Lockhart DJ, Schultz PG. Myoseverin, a microtubule-binding molecule with novel cellular effects. Nature Biotechnol 18: 304–308, 2000 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 444. Rosant C, Nagel MD, Perot C. Aging affects passive stiffness and spindle function of the rat soleus muscle. Exp Gerontol 42: 301–308, 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 445. Rosen GD, Sanes JR, LaChance R, Cunningham JM, Roman J, Dean DC. Roles for the integrin VLA-4 and its counter receptor VCAM-1 in myogenesis. Cell 69: 1107–1119, 1992 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 446. Rosenblatt JD, Lunt AI, Parry DJ, Partridge TA. Culturing satellite cells from living single muscle fiber explants. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 31: 773–779, 1995 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 447. Rosu-Myles M, Stewart E, Trowbridge J, Ito CY, Zandstra P, Bhatia M. A unique population of bone marrow cells migrates to skeletal muscle via hepatocyte growth factor/c-met axis. J Cell Sci 118: 4343–4352, 2005 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 448. Ruberti F, Capsoni S, Comparini A, Di Daniel E, Franzot J, Gonfloni S, Rossi G, Berardi N, Cattaneo A. Phenotypic knockout of nerve growth factor in adult transgenic mice reveals severe deficits in basal forebrain cholinergic neurons, cell death in the spleen, and skeletal muscle dystrophy. J Neurosci 20: 2589–2601, 2000 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 449. Rubinstein I, Abassi Z, Coleman R, Milman F, Winaver J, Better OS. Involvement of nitric oxide system in experimental muscle crush injury. J Clin Invest 101: 1325–1333, 1998 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 450. Rudnicki MA, Le Grand F, McKinnell I, Kuang S. The molecular regulation of muscle stem cell function. Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol 73: 323–331, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 451. Ryan NA, Zwetsloot KA, Westerkamp LM, Hickner RC, Pofahl WE, Gavin TP. Lower skeletal muscle capillarization and VEGF expression in aged vs. young men. J Appl Physiol 100: 178–185, 2006 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 452. Sabourin LA, Girgis-Gabardo A, Seale P, Asakura A, Rudnicki MA. Reduced differentiation potential of primary MyoD−/− myogenic cells derived from adult skeletal muscle. J Cell Biol 144: 631–643, 1999 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 453. Sabourin LA, Rudnicki MA. The molecular regulation of myogenesis. Clin Genet 57: 16–25, 2000 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 454. Sacco A, Doyonnas R, Kraft P, Vitorovic S, Blau HM. Self-renewal and expansion of single transplanted muscle stem cells. Nature 456: 502–506, 2008 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 455. Sakurai H, Okawa Y, Inami Y, Nishio N, Isobe K. Paraxial mesodermal progenitors derived from mouse embryonic stem cells contribute to muscle regeneration via differentiation into muscle satellite cells. Stem Cells 26: 1865–1873, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 456. Sambasivan R, Gayraud-Morel B, Dumas G, Cimper C, Paisant S, Kelly RG, Tajbakhsh S. Distinct regulatory cascades govern extraocular and pharyngeal arch muscle progenitor cell fates. Dev Cell 16: 810–821, 2009 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 457. Sambasivan R, Yao R, Kissenpfennig A, Van Wittenberghe L, Paldi A, Gayraud-Morel B, Guenou H, Malissen B, Tajbakhsh S, Galy A. Pax7-expressing satellite cells are indispensable for adult skeletal muscle regeneration. Development 138: 3647–3656, 2011 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 458. Sampaolesi M, Torrente Y, Innocenzi A, Tonlorenzi R, D'Antona G, Pellegrino MA, Barresi R, Bresolin N, De Angelis MG, Campbell KP, Bottinelli R, Cossu G. Cell therapy of alpha-sarcoglycan null dystrophic mice through intra-arterial delivery of mesoangioblasts. Science 301: 487–492, 2003 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 459. Sanes JR. The basement membrane/basal lamina of skeletal muscle. J Biol Chem 278: 12601–12604, 2003 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 460. Santa Maria L, Rojas CV, Minguell JJ. Signals from damaged but not undamaged skeletal muscle induce myogenic differentiation of rat bone-marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells. Exp Cell Res 300: 418–426, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 461. Sassoli C, Formigli L, Bini F, Tani A, Squecco R, Battistini C, Zecchi-Orlandini S, Francini F, Meacci E. Effects of S1P on skeletal muscle repair/regeneration during eccentric contraction. J Cell Mol Med 15: 2498–2511, 2011 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 462. Scaal M, Christ B. Formation and differentiation of the avian dermomyotome. Anat Embryol 208: 411–424, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 463. Scata KA, Bernard DW, Fox J, Swain JL. FGF receptor availability regulates skeletal myogenesis. Exp Cell Res 250: 10–21, 1999 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 464. Schienda J, Engleka KA, Jun S, Hansen MS, Epstein JA, Tabin CJ, Kunkel LM, Kardon G. Somitic origin of limb muscle satellite and side population cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103: 945–950, 2006 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 465. Schmalbruch H. The morphology of regeneration of skeletal muscles in the rat. Tissue Cell 8: 673–692, 1976 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 466. Schmalbruch H, Hellhammer U. The number of nuclei in adult rat muscles with special reference to satellite cells. Anat Rec 189: 169–175, 1977 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 467. Schmalbruch H, Lewis DM. Dynamics of nuclei of muscle fibers and connective tissue cells in normal and denervated rat muscles. Muscle Nerve 23: 617–626, 2000 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 468. Schultz E. Changes in the satellite cells of growing muscle following denervation. Anat Rec 190: 299–311, 1978 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 469. Schultz E. A quantitative study of the satellite cell population in postnatal mouse lumbrical muscle. Anat Rec 180: 589–595, 1974 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 470. Schultz E. Satellite cell behavior during skeletal muscle growth and regeneration. Med Sci Sports Exerc 21: S181–186, 1989 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 471. Schultz E. Satellite cell proliferative compartments in growing skeletal muscles. Dev Biol 175: 84–94, 1996 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 472. Schultz E, Gibson MC, Champion T. Satellite cells are mitotically quiescent in mature mouse muscle: an EM and radioautographic study. J Exp Zool 206: 451–456, 1978 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 473. Schultz E, Jaryszak DL, Valliere CR. Response of satellite cells to focal skeletal muscle injury. Muscle Nerve 8: 217–222, 1985 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 474. Schwander M, Leu M, Stumm M, Dorchies OM, Ruegg UT, Schittny J, Muller U. Beta1 integrins regulate myoblast fusion and sarcomere assembly. Dev Cell 4: 673–685, 2003 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 475. Sciorati C, Galvez BG, Brunelli S, Tagliafico E, Ferrari S, Cossu G, Clementi E. Ex vivo treatment with nitric oxide increases mesoangioblast therapeutic efficacy in muscular dystrophy. J Cell Sci 119: 5114–5123, 2006 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 476. Seale P, Ishibashi J, Holterman C, Rudnicki MA. Muscle satellite cell-specific genes identified by genetic profiling of MyoD-deficient myogenic cell. Dev Biol 275: 287–300, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 477. Seale P, Ishibashi J, Scime A, Rudnicki MA. Pax7 is necessary and sufficient for the myogenic specification of CD45+:Sca1+ stem cells from injured muscle. PLoS Biol 2: E130, 2004 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 478. Seale P, Sabourin LA, Girgis-Gabardo A, Mansouri A, Gruss P, Rudnicki MA. Pax7 is required for the specification of myogenic satellite cells. Cell 102: 777–786, 2000 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 479. Semsarian C, Wu MJ, Ju YK, Marciniec T, Yeoh T, Allen DG, Harvey RP, Graham RM. Skeletal muscle hypertrophy is mediated by a Ca2+-dependent calcineurin signalling pathway. Nature 400: 576–581, 1999 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 480. Serrano AL, Baeza-Raja B, Perdiguero E, Jardi M, Munoz-Canoves P. Interleukin-6 is an essential regulator of satellite cell-mediated skeletal muscle hypertrophy. Cell Metab 7: 33–44, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 481. Shafiq SA, Gorycki MA, Mauro A. Mitosis during postnatal growth in skeletal and cardiac muscle of the rat. J Anat 103: 135–141, 1968 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 482. Shea KL, Xiang W, LaPorta VS, Licht JD, Keller C, Basson MA, Brack AS. Sprouty1 regulates reversible quiescence of a self-renewing adult muscle stem cell pool during regeneration. Cell Stem Cell 6: 117–129, 2010 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 483. Sheehan SM, Allen RE. Skeletal muscle satellite cell proliferation in response to members of the fibroblast growth factor family and hepatocyte growth factor. J Cell Physiol 181: 499–506, 1999 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 484. Sheehan SM, Tatsumi R, Temm-Grove CJ, Allen RE. HGF is an autocrine growth factor for skeletal muscle satellite cells in vitro. Muscle Nerve 23: 239–245, 2000 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 485. Shefer G, Wleklinski-Lee M, Yablonka-Reuveni Z. Skeletal muscle satellite cells can spontaneously enter an alternative mesenchymal pathway. J Cell Sci 117: 5393–5404, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 486. Sherwood RI, Christensen JL, Conboy IM, Conboy MJ, Rando TA, Weissman IL, Wagers AJ. Isolation of adult mouse myogenic progenitors: functional heterogeneity of cells within and engrafting skeletal muscle. Cell 119: 543–554, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 487. Sherwood RI, Christensen JL, Weissman IL, Wagers AJ. Determinants of skeletal muscle contributions from circulating cells, bone marrow cells, and hematopoietic stem cells. Stem Cells 22: 1292–1304, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 488. Shi D, Reinecke H, Murry CE, Torok-Storb B. Myogenic fusion of human bone marrow stromal cells, but not hematopoietic cells. Blood 104: 290–294, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 489. Shinin V, Gayraud-Morel B, Gomes D, Tajbakhsh S. Asymmetric division and cosegregation of template DNA strands in adult muscle satellite cells. Nat Cell Biol 8: 677–687, 2006 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 490. Siegel AL, Atchison K, Fisher KE, Davis GE, Cornelison DD. 3D timelapse analysis of muscle satellite cell motility. Stem Cells 27: 2527–2538, 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 491. Simone C, Forcales SV, Hill DA, Imbalzano AN, Latella L, Puri PL. p38 pathway targets SWI-SNF chromatin-remodeling complex to muscle-specific loci. Nat Genet 36: 738–743, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 492. Simons M, Mlodzik M. Planar cell polarity signaling: from fly development to human disease. Annu Rev Genet 42: 517–540, 2008 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 493. Sinha-Hikim I, Artaza J, Woodhouse L, Gonzalez-Cadavid N, Singh AB, Lee MI, Storer TW, Casaburi R, Shen R, Bhasin S. Testosterone-induced increase in muscle size in healthy young men is associated with muscle fiber hypertrophy. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 283: E154–E164, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 494. Sinha-Hikim I, Cornford M, Gaytan H, Lee ML, Bhasin S. Effects of testosterone supplementation on skeletal muscle fiber hypertrophy and satellite cells in community-dwelling older men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91: 3024–3033, 2006 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 495. Sinha-Hikim I, Roth SM, Lee MI, Bhasin S. Testosterone-induced muscle hypertrophy is associated with an increase in satellite cell number in healthy, young men. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 285: E197–E205, 2003 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 496. Sinha-Hikim I, Taylor WE, Gonzalez-Cadavid NF, Zheng W, Bhasin S. Androgen receptor in human skeletal muscle and cultured muscle satellite cells: up-regulation by androgen treatment. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89: 5245–5255, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 497. Smith CK, 2nd, Janney MJ, Allen RE. Temporal expression of myogenic regulatory genes during activation, proliferation, differentiation of rat skeletal muscle satellite cells. J Cell Physiol 159: 379–385, 1994 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 498. Snow MH. An autoradiographic study of satellite cell differentiation into regenerating myotubes following transplantation of muscles in young rats. Cell Tissue Res 186: 535–540, 1978 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 499. Snow MH. Myogenic cell formation in regenerating rat skeletal muscle injured by mincing. II. An autoradiographic study. Anat Rec 188: 201–217, 1977 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 500. Snow MH. A quantitative ultrastructural analysis of satellite cells in denervated fast and slow muscles of the mouse. Anat Rec 207: 593–604, 1983 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 501. Song WK, Wang W, Foster RF, Bielser DA, Kaufman SJ. H36-alpha 7 is a novel integrin alpha chain that is developmentally regulated during skeletal myogenesis. J Cell Biol 117: 643–657, 1992 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 502. Song YH, Li Y, Du J, Mitch WE, Rosenthal N, Delafontaine P. Muscle-specific expression of IGF-1 blocks angiotensin II-induced skeletal muscle wasting. J Clin Invest 115: 451–458, 2005 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 503. Sonnet C, Lafuste P, Arnold L, Brigitte M, Poron F, Authier FJ, Chretien F, Gherardi RK, Chazaud B. Human macrophages rescue myoblasts and myotubes from apoptosis through a set of adhesion molecular systems. J Cell Sci 119: 2497–2507, 2006 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 504. Spicer DB, Rhee J, Cheung WL, Lassar AB. Inhibition of myogenic bHLH and MEF2 transcription factors by the bHLH protein Twist. Science 272: 1476–1480, 1996 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 505. Stamler JS, Meissner G. Physiology of nitric oxide in skeletal muscle. Physiol Rev 81: 209–237, 2001 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 506. Stark DA, Karvas RM, Siegel AL, Cornelison DD. Eph/ephrin interactions modulate muscle satellite cell motility and patterning. Development 138: 5279–5289, 2011 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 507. Starkey JD, Yamamoto M, Yamamoto S, Goldhamer DJ. Skeletal muscle satellite cells are committed to myogenesis and do not spontaneously adopt nonmyogenic fates. J Histochem Cytochem 59: 33–46, 2011 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 508. Steinhardt RA, Bi G, Alderton JM. Cell membrane resealing by a vesicular mechanism similar to neurotransmitter release. Science 263: 390–393, 1994 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 509. Summer R, Fitzsimmons K, Dwyer D, Murphy J, Fine A. Isolation of an adult mouse lung mesenchymal progenitor cell population. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 37: 152–159, 2007 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 510. Sun D, Martinez CO, Ochoa O, Ruiz-Willhite L, Bonilla JR, Centonze VE, Waite LL, Michalek JE, McManus LM, Shireman PK. Bone marrow-derived cell regulation of skeletal muscle regeneration. FASEB J 23: 382–395, 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 511. Sun H, Li L, Vercherat C, Gulbagci NT, Acharjee S, Li J, Chung TK, Thin TH, Taneja R. Stra13 regulates satellite cell activation by antagonizing Notch signaling. J Cell Biol 177: 647–657, 2007 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 512. Suzuki J, Yamazaki Y, Li G, Kaziro Y, Koide H. Involvement of Ras and Ral in chemotactic migration of skeletal myoblasts. Mol Cell Biol 20: 4658–4665, 2000 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 513. Suzuki S, Yamanouchi K, Soeta C, Katakai Y, Harada R, Naito K, Tojo H. Skeletal muscle injury induces hepatocyte growth factor expression in spleen. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 292: 709–714, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 514. Takahashi A, Kureishi Y, Yang J, Luo Z, Guo K, Mukhopadhyay D, Ivashchenko Y, Branellec D, Walsh K. Myogenic Akt signaling regulates blood vessel recruitment during myofiber growth. Mol Cell Biol 22: 4803–4814, 2002 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 515. Takahashi K, Tanabe K, Ohnuki M, Narita M, Ichisaka T, Tomoda K, Yamanaka S. Induction of pluripotent stem cells from adult human fibroblasts by defined factors. Cell 131: 861–872, 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 516. Takahashi K, Yamanaka S. Induction of pluripotent stem cells from mouse embryonic and adult fibroblast cultures by defined factors. Cell 126: 663–676, 2006 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 517. Tamaki T, Akatsuka A, Yoshimura S, Roy RR, Edgerton VR. New fiber formation in the interstitial spaces of rat skeletal muscle during postnatal growth. J Histochem Cytochem 50: 1097–1111, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 518. Tanaka KK, Hall JK, Troy AA, Cornelison DD, Majka SM, Olwin BB. Syndecan-4-expressing muscle progenitor cells in the SP engraft as satellite cells during muscle regeneration. Cell Stem Cell 4: 217–225, 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 519. Tang W, Zeve D, Suh JM, Bosnakovski D, Kyba M, Hammer RE, Tallquist MD, Graff JM. White fat progenitor cells reside in the adipose vasculature. Science 322: 583–586, 2008 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 520. Tatsumi R, Allen RE. Active hepatocyte growth factor is present in skeletal muscle extracellular matrix. Muscle Nerve 30: 654–658, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 521. Tatsumi R, Anderson JE, Nevoret CJ, Halevy O, Allen RE. HGF/SF is present in normal adult skeletal muscle and is capable of activating satellite cells. Dev Biol 194: 114–128, 1998 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 522. Tatsumi R, Hattori A, Ikeuchi Y, Anderson JE, Allen RE. Release of hepatocyte growth factor from mechanically stretched skeletal muscle satellite cells and role of pH and nitric oxide. Mol Biol Cell 13: 2909–2918, 2002 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 523. Tatsumi R, Liu X, Pulido A, Morales M, Sakata T, Dial S, Hattori A, Ikeuchi Y, Allen RE. Satellite cell activation in stretched skeletal muscle and the role of nitric oxide and hepatocyte growth factor. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 290: C1487–C1494, 2006 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 524. Tatsumi R, Sankoda Y, Anderson JE, Sato Y, Mizunoya W, Shimizu N, Suzuki T, Yamada M, Rhoads RP, Jr, Ikeuchi Y, Allen RE. Possible implication of satellite cells in regenerative motoneuritogenesis: HGF upregulates neural chemorepellent Sema3A during myogenic differentiation. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 297: C238–C252, 2009 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 525. Tatsumi R, Sheehan SM, Iwasaki H, Hattori A, Allen RE. Mechanical stretch induces activation of skeletal muscle satellite cells in vitro. Exp Cell Res 267: 107–114, 2001 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 526. Taulli R, Bersani F, Foglizzo V, Linari A, Vigna E, Ladanyi M, Tuschl T, Ponzetto C. The muscle-specific microRNA miR-206 blocks human rhabdomyosarcoma growth in xenotransplanted mice by promoting myogenic differentiation. J Clin Invest 119: 2366–2378, 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 527. Taylor-Jones JM, McGehee RE, Rando TA, Lecka-Czernik B, Lipschitz DA, Peterson CA. Activation of an adipogenic program in adult myoblasts with age. Mech Ageing Dev 123: 649–661, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 528. Theise ND. Gastrointestinal stem cells. III. Emergent themes of liver stem cell biology: niche, quiescence, self-renewal, and plasticity. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 290: G189–G193, 2006 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 529. Thompson SH, Boxhorn LK, Kong WY, Allen RE. Trenbolone alters the responsiveness of skeletal muscle satellite cells to fibroblast growth factor and insulin-like growth factor I. Endocrinology 124: 2110–2117, 1989 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 530. Tidball JG. Inflammatory cell response to acute muscle injury. Med Sci Sports Exerc 27: 1022–1032, 1995 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 531. Tidball JG, Daniel TL. Myotendinous junctions of tonic muscle cells: structure and loading. Cell Tissue Res 245: 315–322, 1986 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 532. Tidball JG, Villalta SA. Regulatory interactions between muscle and the immune system during muscle regeneration. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2010 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 533. Tomiya A, Aizawa T, Nagatomi R, Sensui H, Kokubun S. Myofibers express IL-6 after eccentric exercise. Am J Sports Med 32: 503–508, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 534. Torrente Y, Belicchi M, Marchesi C, Dantona G, Cogiamanian F, Pisati F, Gavina M, Giordano R, Tonlorenzi R, Fagiolari G, Lamperti C, Porretti L, Lopa R, Sampaolesi M, Vicentini L, Grimoldi N, Tiberio F, Songa V, Baratta P, Prelle A, Forzenigo L, Guglieri M, Pansarasa O, Rinaldi C, Mouly V, Butler-Browne GS, Comi GP, Biondetti P, Moggio M, Gaini SM, Stocchetti N, Priori A, D'Angelo MG, Turconi A, Bottinelli R, Cossu G, Rebulla P, Bresolin N. Autologous transplantation of muscle-derived CD133+ stem cells in Duchenne muscle patients. Cell Transplant 16: 563–577, 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 535. Torrente Y, Belicchi M, Sampaolesi M, Pisati F, Meregalli M, D'Antona G, Tonlorenzi R, Porretti L, Gavina M, Mamchaoui K, Pellegrino MA, Furling D, Mouly V, Butler-Browne GS, Bottinelli R, Cossu G, Bresolin N. Human circulating AC133(+) stem cells restore dystrophin expression and ameliorate function in dystrophic skeletal muscle. J Clin Invest 114: 182–195, 2004 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 536. Torrente Y, Tremblay JP, Pisati F, Belicchi M, Rossi B, Sironi M, Fortunato F, El Fahime M, D'Angelo MG, Caron NJ, Constantin G, Paulin D, Scarlato G, Bresolin N. Intra-arterial injection of muscle-derived CD34(+)Sca-1(+) stem cells restores dystrophin in mdx mice. J Cell Biol 152: 335–348, 2001 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 537. Toti P, Villanova M, Vatti R, Schuerfeld K, Stumpo M, Barbagli L, Malandrini A, Costantini M. Nerve growth factor expression in human dystrophic muscles. Muscle Nerve 27: 370–373, 2003 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 538. Tsujinaka T, Ebisui C, Fujita J, Kishibuchi M, Morimoto T, Ogawa A, Katsume A, Ohsugi Y, Kominami E, Monden M. Muscle undergoes atrophy in association with increase of lysosomal cathepsin activity in interleukin-6 transgenic mouse. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 207: 168–174, 1995 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 539. Tureckova J, Wilson EM, Cappalonga JL, Rotwein P. Insulin-like growth factor-mediated muscle differentiation: collaboration between phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-Akt-signaling pathways and myogenin. J Biol Chem 276: 39264–39270, 2001 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 540. Tzahor E. Heart and craniofacial muscle development: a new developmental theme of distinct myogenic fields. Dev Biol 327: 273–279, 2009 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 541. Uezumi A, Fukada S, Yamamoto N, Takeda S, Tsuchida K. Mesenchymal progenitors distinct from satellite cells contribute to ectopic fat cell formation in skeletal muscle. Nat Cell Biol 12: 143–152, 2010 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 542. Ustanina S, Carvajal J, Rigby P, Braun T. The myogenic factor Myf5 supports efficient skeletal muscle regeneration by enabling transient myoblast amplification. Stem Cells 25: 2006–2016, 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 543. Valadi H, Ekstrom K, Bossios A, Sjostrand M, Lee JJ, Lotvall JO. Exosome-mediated transfer of mRNAs and microRNAs is a novel mechanism of genetic exchange between cells. Nature Cell Biol 9: 654–659, 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 544. Van den Beld AW, de Jong FH, Grobbee DE, Pols HA, Lamberts SW. Measures of bioavailable serum testosterone and estradiol and their relationships with muscle strength, bone density, and body composition in elderly men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85: 3276–3282, 2000 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 545. Van Rooij E, Quiat D, Johnson BA, Sutherland LB, Qi X, Richardson JA, Kelm RJ, Jr, Olson EN. A family of microRNAs encoded by myosin genes governs myosin expression and muscle performance. Dev Cell 17: 662–673, 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 546. Van Rooij E, Sutherland LB, Qi X, Richardson JA, Hill J, Olson EN. Control of stress-dependent cardiac growth and gene expression by a microRNA. Science 316: 575–579, 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 547. Vandenburgh HH, Karlisch P, Shansky J, Feldstein R. Insulin and IGF-I induce pronounced hypertrophy of skeletal myofibers in tissue culture. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 260: C475–C484, 1991 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 548. Velleman SG, Li X, Coy CS, McFarland DC. The effect of fibroblast growth factor 2 on the in vitro expression of syndecan-4 and glypican-1 in turkey satellite cells. Poult Sci 87: 1834–1840, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 549. Vertino AM, Taylor-Jones JM, Longo KA, Bearden ED, Lane TF, McGehee RE, Jr, MacDougald OA, Peterson CA. Wnt10b deficiency promotes coexpression of myogenic and adipogenic programs in myoblasts. Mol Biol Cell 16: 2039–2048, 2005 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 550. Viguie CA, Lu DX, Huang SK, Rengen H, Carlson BM. Quantitative study of the effects of long-term denervation on the extensor digitorum longus muscle of the rat. Anat Rec 248: 346–354, 1997 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 551. Villena J, Brandan E. Dermatan sulfate exerts an enhanced growth factor response on skeletal muscle satellite cell proliferation and migration. J Cell Physiol 198: 169–178, 2004 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 552. Volonte D, Liu Y, Galbiati F. The modulation of caveolin-1 expression controls satellite cell activation during muscle repair. FASEB J 19: 237–239, 2005 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 553. Wakelam MJ. The fusion of myoblasts. Biochem J 228: 1–12, 1985 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 554. Walker BE. An investigation of skeletal muscle regeneration with radioautography. Anat Rec 350, 1960 [Google Scholar] 555. Walsh K. Coordinate regulation of cell cycle and apoptosis during myogenesis. Prog Cell Cycle Res 3: 53–58, 1997 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 556. Warren GL, Hulderman T, Jensen N, McKinstry M, Mishra M, Luster MI, Simeonova PP. Physiological role of tumor necrosis factor alpha in traumatic muscle injury. FASEB J 16: 1630–1632, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 557. Watt DJ, Morgan JE, Clifford MA, Partridge TA. The movement of muscle precursor cells between adjacent regenerating muscles in the mouse. Anat Embryol 175: 527–536, 1987 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 558. Wehrman TS, von Degenfeld G, Krutzik PO, Nolan GP, Blau HM. Luminescent imaging of beta-galactosidase activity in living subjects using sequential reporter-enzyme luminescence. Nat Methods 3: 295–301, 2006 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 559. Weinberg RA. The retinoblastoma protein and cell cycle control. Cell 81: 323–330, 1995 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 560. Wen Y, Bi P, Liu W, Asakura A, Keller C, Kuang S. Constitutive notch activation upregulates pax7 and promotes the self-renewal of skeletal muscle satellite cells. Mol Cell Biol 32: 2300–2311, 2012 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 561. Weyman CM, Wolfman A. Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK) activity is required for inhibition of skeletal muscle differentiation by insulin-like growth factor 1 or fibroblast growth factor 2. Endocrinology 139: 1794–1800, 1998 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 562. Whalen RG, Harris JB, Butler-Browne GS, Sesodia S. Expression of myosin isoforms during notexin-induced regeneration of rat soleus muscles. Dev Biol 141: 24–40, 1990 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 563. Wheeler EF, Bothwell M. Spatiotemporal patterns of expression of NGF and the low-affinity NGF receptor in rat embryos suggest functional roles in tissue morphogenesis and myogenesis. J Neurosci 12: 930–945, 1992 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 564. White JD, Scaffidi A, Davies M, McGeachie J, Rudnicki MA, Grounds MD. Myotube formation is delayed but not prevented in MyoD-deficient skeletal muscle: studies in regenerating whole muscle grafts of adult mice. J Histochem Cytochem 48: 1531–1544, 2000 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 565. Williams AH, Liu N, van Rooij E, Olson EN. MicroRNA control of muscle development and disease. Curr Opin Cell Biol 21: 461–469, 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 566. Wilson A, Trumpp A. Bone-marrow haematopoietic-stem-cell niches. Nat Rev Immunol 6: 93–106, 2006 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 567. Wokke JH, Van den Oord CJ, Leppink GJ, Jennekens FG. Perisynaptic satellite cells in human external intercostal muscle: a quantitative and qualitative study. Anat Rec 223: 174–180, 1989 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 568. Woodley DT, Rao CN, Hassell JR, Liotta LA, Martin GR, Kleinman HK. Interactions of basement membrane components. Biochim Biophys Acta 761: 278–283, 1983 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 569. Wozniak AC, Anderson JE. Nitric oxide-dependence of satellite stem cell activation and quiescence on normal skeletal muscle fibers. Dev Dyn 236: 240–250, 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 570. Wu Z, Luby-Phelps K, Bugde A, Molyneux LA, Denard B, Li WH, Suel GM, Garbers DL. Capacity for stochastic self-renewal and differentiation in mammalian spermatogonial stem cells. J Cell Biol 187: 513–524, 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 571. Wu Z, Woodring PJ, Bhakta KS, Tamura K, Wen F, Feramisco JR, Karin M, Wang JY, Puri PL. p38 and extracellular signal-regulated kinases regulate the myogenic program at multiple steps. Mol Cell Biol 20: 3951–3964, 2000 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 572. Yablonka-Reuveni Z, Rivera AJ. Temporal expression of regulatory and structural muscle proteins during myogenesis of satellite cells on isolated adult rat fibers. Dev Biol 164: 588–603, 1994 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 573. Yablonka-Reuveni Z, Rudnicki MA, Rivera AJ, Primig M, Anderson JE, Natanson P. The transition from proliferation to differentiation is delayed in satellite cells from mice lacking MyoD. Dev Biol 210: 440–455, 1999 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 574. Yaffe D. Cellular aspects of muscle differentiation in vitro. Curr Top Dev Biol 4: 37–77, 1969 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 575. Yamada M, Sankoda Y, Tatsumi R, Mizunoya W, Ikeuchi Y, Sunagawa K, Allen RE. Matrix metalloproteinase-2 mediates stretch-induced activation of skeletal muscle satellite cells in a nitric oxide-dependent manner. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 40: 2183–2191, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 576. Yamada M, Tatsumi R, Kikuiri T, Okamoto S, Nonoshita S, Mizunoya W, Ikeuchi Y, Shimokawa H, Sunagawa K, Allen RE. Matrix metalloproteinases are involved in mechanical stretch-induced activation of skeletal muscle satellite cells. Muscle Nerve 34: 313–319, 2006 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 577. Yan D, Dong Xda E, Chen X, Wang L, Lu C, Wang J, Qu J, Tu L. MicroRNA-1/206 targets c-Met and inhibits rhabdomyosarcoma development. J Biol Chem 284: 29596–29604, 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 578. Yang SY, Goldspink G. Different roles of the IGF-I Ec peptide (MGF) and mature IGF-I in myoblast proliferation and differentiation. FEBS Lett 522: 156–160, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 579. Yeow K, Phillips B, Dani C, Cabane C, Amri EZ, Derijard B. Inhibition of myogenesis enables adipogenic trans-differentiation in the C2C12 myogenic cell line. FEBS Lett 506: 157–162, 2001 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 580. Yildiz O. Vascular smooth muscle and endothelial functions in aging. Ann NY Acad Sci 1100: 353–360, 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 581. Yoshimoto M, Chang H, Shiota M, Kobayashi H, Umeda K, Kawakami A, Heike T, Nakahata T. Two different roles of purified CD45+c-Kit+Sca-1+Lin− cells after transplantation in muscles. Stem Cells 23: 610–618, 2005 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 582. Yu J, Vodyanik MA, Smuga-Otto K, Antosiewicz-Bourget J, Frane JL, Tian S, Nie J, Jonsdottir GA, Ruotti V, Stewart R, Slukvin II, Thomson JA. Induced pluripotent stem cell lines derived from human somatic cells. Science 318: 1917–1920, 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 583. Yu Y, Ge N, Xie M, Sun W, Burlingame S, Pass AK, Nuchtern JG, Zhang D, Fu S, Schneider MD, Fan J, Yang J. Phosphorylation of Thr-178 and Thr-184 in the TAK1 T-loop is required for interleukin (IL)-1-mediated optimal NFkappaB and AP-1 activation as well as IL-6 gene expression. J Biol Chem 283: 24497–24505, 2008 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 584. Zammit PS, Golding JP, Nagata Y, Hudon V, Partridge TA, Beauchamp JR. Muscle satellite cells adopt divergent fates: a mechanism for self-renewal? J Cell Biol 166: 347–357, 2004 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 585. Zammit PS, Heslop L, Hudon V, Rosenblatt JD, Tajbakhsh S, Buckingham ME, Beauchamp JR, Partridge TA. Kinetics of myoblast proliferation show that resident satellite cells are competent to fully regenerate skeletal muscle fibers. Exp Cell Res 281: 39–49, 2002 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 586. Zarnegar R, Michalopoulos GK. The many faces of hepatocyte growth factor: from hepatopoiesis to hematopoiesis. J Cell Biol 129: 1177–1180, 1995 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 587. Zhang JM, Wei Q, Zhao X, Paterson BM. Coupling of the cell cycle and myogenesis through the cyclin D1-dependent interaction of MyoD with cdk4. EMBO J 18: 926–933, 1999 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 588. Zhang P, Wong C, Liu D, Finegold M, Harper JW, Elledge SJ. p21(CIP1) and p57(KIP2) control muscle differentiation at the myogenin step. Genes Dev 13: 213–224, 1999 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 589. Zhao M, New L, Kravchenko VV, Kato Y, Gram H, di Padova F, Olson EN, Ulevitch RJ, Han J. Regulation of the MEF2 family of transcription factors by p38. Mol Cell Biol 19: 21–30, 1999 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 590. Zhong W, Chia W. Neurogenesis and asymmetric cell division. Curr Opin Neurobiol 18: 4–11, 2008 [PubMed] [Google Scholar] Page 2 Satellite cell activation, differentiation, and fusion. The myogenic program is orchestrated by key transcription factors that dictate the progression from quiescence, activation, proliferation, and differentiation/self-renewal of satellite cells. This results in the transformation of individual satellite cells into a syncytial contractile myofiber. Initially satellite cells are mitotically quiescent (G0 phase) and reside in a sublaminar niche. Quiescent satellite cells are characterized by their expression of Pax7 and Myf5 but not MyoD or Myogenin. Damage to the environment surrounding satellite cells results in the deterioration of the basal lamina and their exit from the quiescent state (satellite cell activation). Proliferating satellite cells and their progeny are often referred to as myogenic precursor cells (MPC) or adult myoblasts. Adult myoblasts express the myogenic transcription factors MyoD and Myf5. Following proliferation, adult myoblasts begin differentiation by downregulating Pax7. The initiation of terminal differentiation and fusion begins with the expression of Myogenin, which in concert with MyoD will activate muscle specific structural and contractile genes. During regeneration, activated satellite cells have the capability to return to quiescence to maintain the satellite cell pool. This ability is critical for long-term muscle integrity. Click on the image to see a larger version. |
