| QuestionAnswer the word "theory" is most closely associated with... science a reliable test yields constant results personality theorists have evolved different systems because all of the above the variety of personality theories now is due to the different personal and philosophical perspectives that each theorist has of human nature a useful theory should be parsimonious, meaning that it should be simple a taxonomy is best defined as a class system any test that correlates with future behaviors is said to have predictive validity what is the proper place of theory within science? theories are tools used by scientists to give meaning to observations a set of related assumptions from which, by logical deductive reasoning, testable hypotheses can be drawn is the definition of theory the word personality comes from the latin word "persona" meaning theatrical mask the two most important functions of a theory are its ability to generate research and organize observations personality theorists who adopt a teological approach generally believe that people's behavior is a function of people's expectations of future events the basic data of science are observations descriptive research contributes to expanding a theory a test that can accurately divide extraverts from introverts is said to have discriminant validity statements formed in an if-then framework are most likely theories the ultimate value of any theory depends on its usefulness which of the following is not a dimension used by the authors to assess a theorist's concept of humanity order vs. disorder what is the relationship between theory and observation? there is a mutual and dynamic interaction between them psychologists generally agree that personality can be explained by several different theories a taxonomy is best described as a classification system the personalities, cognitive processes, developmental histories and social experiences of personality theorists help shape their theories. the discipline that deals with these pactors is called the psychology of science a useful theory must be falsifiable, which means that it must be precise enough to suggest research that may either support or fail to support its major tenets a theory can be a practical guide for a psychotherapist part of the internal consistency of a theory is a set of operational definitions after World War I, Freud made which revision to his theory of personality? he placed a greater emphasis on the aggression instinct Bettelheim argued that psychoanalysis should be seen as a human science the apprehension one feels while in the presence of a teacher is what Freud called neurotic anxiety which of the following distinguishes sublimation from the other Freudian defense mechanisms? Sublimation is constructive to society Freud believed that boys and girls have a different psychosexual development because of anatomical differences between the genders which label best fits Freud's theory of personality comprehensive according to Freud, ideas that slip in and out of awareness with greater or lesser degrees of ease are preconscious the paintings and sculpture of Michelangelo best exemplify Freud's concept of sublimation Freud believed that a girl's superego was not fully developed as a boy's supergo among Freud's personal qualities were an intellectual curiosity and high moral courage Freud suggested that the latency period was rooted in our phylogenetic endowment Freud believed that instincts are characterized by all the following except depth According to Freud, all people posses two major instincts or drives, they are: sex and aggression the most basic freudian defense mechanism is repression freud believed that the superego develops from the ego a young man gets sexual gratification by kissing and aressing women's shoes. what statement best describes this situation, according to Freud the sexual object has been displaced from a freudian perspective, psychological maturity might be characterized by minimal repression and maximal conciousness the apprehension one feels while in the presence of a teacher is what Freud called neurotic anxiety Freud abandoned this theory in 1897, the year after his father died seduction theory a man goes into a gay bar and initiates a fight with a homosexual man as a result of his own unconscious homosexual impulses. this is an example of which Freudian defense mechanism? projection asking a patient to verbalize thoughts, no matter how absurd, irrelevant, or embarrassing, is the freudian technique of free association From a Freudian perspective, psychological maturity might be characterized by minimal repression and maximal consciouness according to Freud, ideas that slip in and out of awareness with greater or lesser degrees of ease are preconcious Freud believed that instincts are characterized by all of the following except depth robin protects herself against the threat of change by constantly clinging to the objects and behaviors left from her early childhood. it thus appears that robin is relying primarily on which Freudian defense mechanism? fixation an example of freud's notion of projection might be "i like him fine, but for some reaon he hates me" Freud's three levels of mental life are unconscoius, preconscious and conscious The aim of Freud's destructive instinct is self-destruction Madison is frequently berated by his domineering employer. madison is too timid to confront his employer, but he takes out his frustration by mistreating his dog, children and wife. according to Freud, this is an example of displacement Freud's notion of phylogenetic endowment refers to our ancestor's experiences that we inherit and that form part of our unconscious According to freud, dreams have meaning on two levels. The more important level concerns the latent content Which of these progressions is most consistent with psychoanalytic theory? punishment of a child's sexual behavior leads to suppression of sexual behavior, which leads to anxiety, which leads to repression The use of Freudian defense mechanisms requires an expenditure of psychic energy A young man gets sexual gratification by kissing and caressing women's shoes. what statement best describes this situation, according to Freud? The sexual object has been displaced According to Freud, feelings of inferiority stem from the ego-ideal Freud held that the secondary process functions through the ego According to Freud, the ego's dependency on the superego results in moral anxiety Freud held that the pain of anxiety is most likely to result in defensive behavior According to Freud, a boy who feels strong hostility toward his father and sexual love for his mother is experiencing the simple male Oedipus complex The id is primarily involved in which of the following activities, according to Freud? thumb-sucking behavior Freud believed that a girl's superego was not as fully developed as a boy's superego The use of Freudian defense mechanisms requires an expenditure of psychic energy Among Freud's personal qualities were an intellectual curiosity and high moral courage The "royal road to the unconscious" was thought by Freud to be dreams Freud claimed that during the Oedipal period, a boy may feel sexual love toward each pearent According to Freud, most of our menal life is unconscious Freud believes that the superego develops from the ego Freud believed that parapraxes, or "freudian slips" revealed unconscious intent According to Freud, male and female persoanlity development is similar until the phallic stage Adlerians believe that if style of life changes, early recollections can also change Adler held that children who received love and affection from their parents typically develop strong social interest Unlike Freud, Adler believed that narcissim is a form of neurosis From an adlerian perspective, inconsistent behavior serves a single purpose Which of the following statements best expresses Adler's concept of humanity People's interpretations of experiences are more important than the experiences themselves Firstborn children, according to Adler, are likely to have intensified feelings of power and superiority Vaciliating, procrastinating or behaving compulsively are examples of which adlerian safeguarding tendency? hesitating Adler believed that the typical secondborn child develops moderate competitiveness The ego is devided into objective and subjective aspects during this phase of childhood, according to Jung dualistic In Jung's theory, the process of actualizing the various components of personality best describes extraversion Jung called contents of the personal unconscious complexes According to Jung, individuation, or self-reliazation is a common occurrence among young people In Jungian psychology, a person primarily concerned with external matters such as financial success, competition, and material possessions would be extraverted According to Jung, introversion is basically subjective Jung's anarchic phase of childhood is charachterized by a chaotic and sporadic consciousness Jung believed that the crucial time in life when one should move from an extraverted attitude toward an introverted one is middle life In Jungian psychology, a withdrawn accountant with a strong interest in numbers and things and with little knowledge of his or her internal strivings would be classified as extraverted Jung cited this as evidence for the existence of a collective unconscious big dreams Like Freud, Jung believed that all humans are psychologically bisexual According to Jung, when a personal experience corresponds to a latent primordial image, an archetype is activated Jung called an inclination to act or react in a characteristic direction an attitude According to Bowlby, both humans and other primates experience separation anxiety. The stage unique to humans is the detachment stage klein extended Freud's psychoanalysis by emphasizing very early infancy Mahler's principal concern was with the psychological birth of the child Among the people that Klein psychoanalyzed was her son Erich According to Klein, when the female Oedipus complex is successfully resolved, the little girl with develop positive feelings toward both parents The aim Kleinian therapy is to reduce depressive anxieties and persecutory fears Which object relations theorist strongly emphasized the process by which the self evolves? Kohut Which issue became part of a bitter debate between Melanie Klein and Anna Freud during the 1920's and 1930's the idea of childhood psychoanalysis Klein suggested that psychic defense mechanisms protect the ego against anxiety aroused by destructive phantasies Horney asserted that the primary adverse influence inhibiting a child's potential for healthy development is the failure of the parents to love the child Horney believed that people are governed by which two guiding principles? safety and satisfaction Horney saw the tendency to humiliate others in order to protect oneself against humiliation as prestige Feelings of isolation, Horney said, stem from an overly competitive society In Horney's view, these are largely responsible for the development of basic anxiety and subsequent unhealthy interpersonal relations cultural conditions Tami is proud of her intellectual skills and abilities, and she is pleased when others notice and admire her superior intelligence. These characterists reflect Horney's neurotic need for personal admiration Horney believed that intrapsychic processes originate from interpersonal experiences The major strength of Horney's theory is her comprehensive description of the neurotic personality Parker is constantly belittling his own accomplishments. He also dreads asking others for favors. These behaviors illustrate Horney's neurotic need to restrict one's life within narrow borders Which of these is the LEAST characteristic or people Horney regarded as neurotic? high self-esteem For Horney, adult attitudes towards others are a product of individual character structure According to Horney, aggressive people assume that other people are hostile Karen Horney, like this psychologist, was the youngest of a middle-aged father, had older siblings who were favored by her parents, and felt unwanted and unloved Melanie Klein According to Horney, neurotics differ from normals in that they experience severs, insoluble conflicts Horney criticized Freudian theory on several accounts. Which of these was one of her major criticisms? Freud's ideas on feminine psychology According to Horney, neurotic strategies differ from normal ones by their compulsivity Horney recognized that some women may wish to be a man due to cultural privileges for men Fromm held that our culture's current feelings of anxiety, isolation and powerlessness stem from the rise of capitalism Fromm's most basic assumption is that personality must be understood in the light of history In Fromm's productive strategy of attaining rootedness, people are weaned from the protective orbit of the mother or mother substitute For Fromm, productive and caring creation reflects the need for transcendence Fromm believed that a symbiotic relationship can be gratifying to the participants Fromm used the term "necrophilia" to refer to any attraction to death Omar is preoccupied with guilt about previous transgressions. Fromm would say that Omar is suffering from moral hypochondiasis From held that the twin components of positive freedom are love and work Fromm's human dilemma includes the notion that people have acquired reasoning ability yet have few animal instincts Fromm referred to our human need for a guide or map to make our way through the world as a need for a frame of orientation An energy transformation in Sullivanian theory can be best described as an action or behavior Sullivan's Zodiac group served as a discussion group of professionals interested in the social sciences The end of Sullivan's juvenile era is marked by the beginning of intimacy with a single chum The Sullivanian period beginning at birth and continuing until the development of articulate speech is the infancy stage Sullivan called the control of focal awareness that involves a refusal to see those things one does not wish to see selective inattention Sullivan's concept of humanity includes the notion that people become humans through their interpersonal relations According to Sullivan, lust interferes with security because genital activity is related to guild, shame and anxiety Sullivan believed anxiety was different from other tensions because an infant has no capacity or means of reducing it Sullivan's dynamism of intimacy grows out of which earlier need? tenderness According to Sullivan, this is characterized by the feeling that one is living among one's enemies malevolent transformation According to Erikson, what is necessary for proper adaptation? both syntonic and dystonic elemtns Self-control and interpersonal control are the tasks of this stage of psychosocial development, according to Erikson early childhood According to Erikson, teaching and instructing in the ways of a society or culture typically occur during the school age Erikson believed that the Oedipus and castration complexes are not always to be taken literally Erikson believed that oe's ability to adapt is dependent on a maximum ration of trust to mistrust Erikson believed that a sense of readiness for danger and an anticipation of discomfort are adaptive aspects of mistrust Erikson, unlike Jung and Adler, never repudiated Freud's ideas Maslow claimed that when people who have satisfied their esteem needs are criticized or deprecated by others they retain their sense of self-worth According to Maslow, metamotivation is the motivation of self-actualizing people Maslow believed that all behavior has a cause Maslow hypothesized that t the order of needs may be reversed in certain cases According to Maslow, most people who seek therapy probably have the most trouble satisfying their love and belongingness needs Maslow claimed that safety needs differ from physiological needs in that they cannot be overly satiated According to Maslow, self-actualizing people are relatively well satisfied in their basic needs For Maslow, B-love is unmotivated, expressive behavior Maslow said that when cognitive needs are not satisfied, a person will become pathological The most basic needs in Maslow's hierarchy are physiological needs In studies of the relationship between self and the ideal self, Rogers found that psychologically healthy people show little discrepancy between self and ideal self For Rogers, the ideal self is one's view of how one would like to be According to Rogers, when therapists experience a "warm, positive and accepting attitude toward what is the client" they have unconditional positive regard for that client Rogers called the tendency for matter (organic and inorganic) to evolve from simpler to more complex forms the formative tendency Roger's early approach to therapy was most influenced by Otto Rank Rogers claimed that incongruence exists when a person feels a discrepancy of self-concept versus ideals self Rogers believed that healthy individuals evaluate their experience from the viewpoint of their organismic self To Rogers, the basic ingredient of maladjustment is discrepancy of organismic vs. percieved self Disorganization exists, Rogers said, when normal defenses do not reconcile experiences with view of self Rogers's concept of humanity is basically positive and optimistic According to May, a person's refusal to accept ontological guilt leads to neurotic or morbid guilt As a young man, Rollo May, like Erik Erikson traveled through Europe as a wandering artist Two basic concepts of existentialism are being-in-the-world and nonbeing May said the neurotic anxiety is experienced when our values are transformed into dogma May believed that healthy people unite love and will For may, this is an altruistic kind of love agape May was influenced by Soren Kierkegaard's view of anxiety as a struggle against nonbeing May claimed that, to the extent that anxiety and guilt arise from our being-in-the-world, they are ontological According to May, in North American society, sex is frequently confused with eros According to may, ontological guilt is experienced by most people in one form or another Allport believed that insight and humor may be aspects of self-objectification Allport placed personal dispositions on a continuum from central to peripheral Allport contended that adult motives are different from children's motives According to Allport, present motives are functionally autonomous to the extent that they continually seek out new goals Most people who knew Allport described him as reseved, prim and orderly. Allport would say that these description are in terms of central dispositions Allport termed less intensely felt personal dispositions that guide action stylistic dispositions Allport's definition of personality included the notion of personality as both dynamic and disorganized Allport criticized older theories of personality for neglecting the normal psychologically healthy individual Allport favored a view of personality that regards behavior as proactive Allport's notion that people are capable of conscoiusly acting upon their environment in new and innovative ways that permit psychological grown is illustrated by proactive behavior What evidence did Eysenck present on the biological bases of personality? identical twins have more similar personal than fraternal twins reared together Which of the following statements would NOT be generally acceptable to factor and trait theorists? personality traits are mostly determined by envirtonmental factors Which trait theoriest was a native of Germany, but lived and worked for much of his professional life in England and at the University of London? Eysenck According to Eysenck's findings, cold, nonconformind and aggressive personalities tend to score high on psychoticism McCrae and Costa (1996) objected to earlier personality theories as over-relying on clinical events and armchair speculation Some people are vulnerable to organic and psychiatric illness because they have a genetic or acquired weakness that predisposes them to the illness. this explanation for an illness is what Eysenck called the diathesis-stress model Which of the following is NOT one of the five train factors in the five-factor model? psychoticism Which term best describes the "acquired personality structures that develop as people adapt to their environments"? characteristic adaptations In general, research testing the five-factor model across cultures has revealed that traits appear to be consistent in most countries of the world The essence of basic tendencies is their basis in biology and their stability over time and situation The systematic withholding of reinforcement previously contingent upon a response until the probability of the response diminishes to zero is Skinn'er definition of extinction Concerning drives, Skinner said that they are responses to deprivation or satiation Skinner's principal contribution to psychotherapy was as a writer whose ideas have influenced the behavior therapy moement When operant conditioning is used to shape complex behiavor such as playing a piano, reinforcement is applied through successive approximations Elms believes that Skinner's midlife crisis ended with his writing of Walden Two Which of the following is NOT a principal characteristic of science, according to Skinner? Science explains behavior Unlike punishment, reinforcement gives information as to desired behavior Fixed-ration, variable-ration, fixed-interval, and variable-interval are examples of intermittent schedules Skinner believed that passive resistance is most likely to be used after escape and revolt have failed Grant has been planning a trip to Italy after he graduates with a degree in art. How would Skinner explain Grant's planning? Grant's planning behavior is positively reinfocing In Bandura's view, self-efficiacy is most likely to be increased when one successfully performs a difficult task According to Bandura, the four core features of human agency are intentionality, _______, self-reactiveness,and self-reflectiveness forethought Basically, Bandura views humans as cognitive animals In order for observational learning to lead to new response patterns, bandura claims that those patterns must be symbolically represented in memory Erick is confident that he has the skills and abilities to be an excllent professional baseball player. however, he is uncertain ehether he will be offered a job as a player. Thus according to Bandura, he has high efficacy expectations and low outcome expectations Harrison, a professional photographer, is dissatisfied with his latest work, judging several pictures as substandard by his own criteria. Bandura would say that harrison will probably withhold reward for substandard performance a notable feature of Bandura's theory is its high internal consistency Bandura's treatment technique that involves the extinction of anxiety or fear through self-or therapist-induced relaxation is systematic desensitization Mischel and Shoda's cognitive-affective personality system predicts that a person's behavior will change from one situation to another, but in a meaningful manner In their concepts of humanity, both Rotter and Mischel have more telological than causal explanations of behavior Mischel and Moore (1973) Found that children who were encouraged to imagine real rewards whil viewing pictures of rewards could not wait as long for the rewards as could children who were merely exposed to pictures of the rewards Mischel and colleagues (2001) tested the person-situation interaction by researching the conditional self-evaluation. they found: interactionist or conditional self-evaluations tend to lead to less extreme emotional reactions Rotter's most basic category of needs, in the sense that other needs are learned in relationship to it, is psychical comfort Unlike Skinner, Julian Rotter contended that an adequate theory of human behavior must be built on people's expectations of the future Mischel's early research led him to believe that behavior is mostly a function of the situation According to Rotter, individuals who set their goals too high engage in avoidant behavior becuase of frustruation Rotter distinguished between internal reinforcement and external reinforcement. Internal Reinforcement is determined by subjective perceptions of an even'ts value Mischel believes that people regulate their own behavior through self-made goals and consequences Mischels' consistency paradox is based on his notion that both laypeople and professional psychologists see behavior as consisten, whereas research suggests that it is inconsistent Rotter defined maladaptive behavior as behavior that fails to move a person closer to a desired goal The more long-range goal of Rotter's approach to psychotherapy was the change in the patient's orientation to life According to Mischel, behavior is determined by the interaction of person variables with situational variables Rotter's basic prediction formula is most useful when making specific predictions According to Rotter, four variables and their interactions must be analyzed to ensure accurate predictions. They include all the following EXCEPT law of effect Which of the following is NOT one of Mischel and Shoda's cognitive-affective units?! sense of self efficacy Rotter's most basic category of needs, in the sense that other needs are learned in relationship to it, is physical comfort At the core of Rotter's personality theory is his emphasis on anticipated goals "a generalized expectancy held by an individual that the word, promise, oral or written statement of another individual or group can be relied on" is Rotter's definition of interpersonal trust Kelly believed that psychologically healthy people are similar to competent scientists According to Kelly, the minimum number of events required to form a construct is three Kelly held that nonscientists make observations and draw conclusions much in the same way as scientists The purpose of Kelly's Rep test is to learn how clients construe significant people in their lives According to Kelly, people's processes will be psychologically similar if these people construe events in a similar manner Kelly called the transparent templates or patterns that help us make sense out of the world personal constructs Psychological disorders, Kelly said, result from personal constructs that are too permeable or too inflexible All women are humans: all humans are mammals: all mammals are animals. This statement expresses Kelly's organization corollary Kelly stated that people belong to the same cultural group because they construe their experiences in the same way kelly's theory of personal construct assumes all BUT: an unchanging world Show Who is most closely associated with the study of the unconscious is?Psychodynamic theory is most closely associated with the work of Sigmund Freud, and with psychoanalysis, a type of psychotherapy that attempts to explore the patient's unconscious thoughts and emotions so that the person is better able to understand him- or herself.
Which psychologist focused on unconscious factors?Freud (1915) emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind, and a primary assumption of Freudian theory is that the unconscious mind governs behavior to a greater degree than people suspect. Indeed, the goal of psychoanalysis is to reveal the use of such defense mechanisms and thus make the unconscious conscious.
Who would be most likely to emphasize the role of the unconscious?Psychology Perspectives Hunt. Who believed that understanding the unconscious mind?Sigmund Freud believed that understanding the unconscious mind was critical to understand subconscious behavior.
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