Is the psychological process that arouses your interest in doing something?

Virtual Avatar as an Emotional Scaffolding Strategy to Promote Interest in Online Learning Environment

Sanghoon Park, in Emotions, Technology, Design, and Learning, 2016

Situational Interest

Situational interest is elicited by aspects of an object or a situation, such as novelty or intensity, or by the presence of interest-inducing factors contributing to the attractiveness of the situation (Krapp, 1999; Tobias, 1994). Most of the research on situational interest has focused on the characteristics of academic tasks that create interest (Hidi & Baird, 1986). The features that have been found to arouse situational interest and promote text comprehension and recall are: personal relevance, novelty, activity level, and comprehensibility. Situational interest is often considered to precede and facilitate the development of individual interest (Krapp et al., 1992).

Regarding situational interest, the differentiated concepts of cognitive interest and emotional interest were proposed by Kintsch (1980). Cognitive interest adjuncts, such as explanative summaries, influence learner’s cognition by promoting the learner’s structural understanding of the explanation. On the other hand, emotional interest is believed to occur when adding interesting, but peripherally relevant material to a lesson. Learners are expected to be energized and pay more attention to learning (Harp & Mayer, 1997). As cognitive interest and emotional interest are derived by specific features of a learning material, both need to be counted as two aspects of situational interest, as shown in Figure 10.3.

Building upon previously conducted research on interest and development, Hidi and Renninger (2006) proposed a four-phase model of interest development that describes phases of situational interest and individual interest in terms of affective and cognitive processes. The four-phase model provides a rationale for identifying early phases of interest development in terms of affect or liking. The model offers a description of each phase, information about the type of support that a person in each phase of interest typically needs, and possible ways to design educational or instructional conditions to support interest development from situational interest to individual interest. The four phases consists of: Phase 1: Triggered situational interest; Phase 2: Maintained situational interest; Phase 3: Emerging individual interest; and Phase 4: Well-developed individual interest. Suggested support descriptions for interest development in each phase of the model offer implications for designing VAs’ emotional scaffolding strategies in online learning. Table 10.2 presents summaries of each phase condition for learning environment design and conditions for VA scaffolding design.

Table 10.2. Four phases of interest development, instructional design, emotional scaffolding using VAs

Interest development phase (Hidi & Renninger, 2006)DefinitionInstructional designImplicit and explicit emotional scaffolding strategies using VAPhase 1: Triggered situational interestPsychological state of interest that results from short-term changes in affective and cognitive processingDesign instructional activities that trigger situational interest (group work, puzzles, computer activities, etc.)Provide scaffolding strategies that emphasize environmental or text features, such as incongruous, surprising information; character identification or personal relevance; and intensityPhase 2: Maintained situational interestPsychological state of interest that is subsequent to a triggered state, involves focused attention and persistence over an extended episode in timeDesign instructional activities that provide meaningful and personally involving activities (project-based learning, cooperative group work, and one-on-one tutoring)Provide scaffolding strategies that hold and sustain meaningfulness of tasks and/or personal involvement (situational interest-inducing strategies)Phase 3: Emerging individual interestPsychological state of interest that is the beginning phase of a relatively enduring predisposition to seek repeated re-engagement with particular classes of content over timeDesign instructional activities that share ideas and viewpoints from peers or experts, that offer challenging tasks related to students emerging individual interest with opportunity to re-engage them with a choiceProvide scaffolding strategies that help maintain students’ self-generated curiosity; that provide support to help students increase understanding of the content; that offer encouragement to persevere when confronted with difficultyPhase 4: Well-developed individual interestPsychological state of interest that is a relatively enduring predisposition to re-engage with particular classes of content overtimeDesign instructional activities that facilitate the well-developed individual interest by providing interaction and challenge which leads to knowledge buildingProvide scaffolding strategies that help students generate and seek answers to their own curiosity questions; that support long-term constructive and creative endeavors; that offer deeper levels of explanation for tasks; that help preserve work, even in frustration

In online learning, where VAs are present, students’ interest is affected by VA design considerations within the four-phases of interest development. In the next section, such VA design considerations are discussed.

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Interest, Psychology of

S. Hidi, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001

2.1 Situational Interest

Situational interest is generated by particular conditions and/or objects in the environment. Such interest involves focused attention and an affective reaction that may or may not last (Hidi 1990). Although the affective reaction associated with situational interest tends to be positive, negative emotions may also be involved in experiencing interest (Hidi and Harackiewicz 2000). For example, a student who is not interested in science may watch a television show that demonstrates how sheep and cows may be cloned. The student reacts with surprise and a little concern. Her interest has been triggered and her attention has been focused. She experiences fascination mixed with some negative emotions driven by her apprehension over what might happen if humans are cloned. If the television show does not further sustain these reactions, the student will stop watching and move on to other activities. Thus, her situational interest has been linked only to that moment and proved to be short-lived. On the other hand, if the content of the show presents further images that engage her attention and she continues to watch it, her situational interest has been maintained. In this case, the student has continued to experience the psychological state of interest. She became fully engaged, and may even be riveted to the television program.

The above examples suggest that situational interest should be conceptualized as having two potential stages, one in which interest is triggered, and a subsequent stage in which interest is further maintained (Hidi and Baird 1986). Several experimental investigations have found empirical support for this two-stage model (e.g., Harackiewicz et al. 2000, Mitchell 1993).

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Emotional Design in Digital Media for Learning

Jan L. Plass, Ulas Kaplan, in Emotions, Technology, Design, and Learning, 2016

Situational Interest

Situational interest is described as an immediate affective response to particular stimuli and conditions that originate from the learning environment, a response that may be fleeting or lasting, and that directs learners’ attention to the task (Hidi, 1990; Hidi & Renninger, 2006; Mitchell, 1993; Rotgans & Schmidt, 2011; Schraw, Flowerday, & Lehman, 2001). Situational interest is different from learners’ individual interest, which describes their intrinsic desire and tendency to engage in a particular subject matter or activity over time. Situational interest is of importance as research has found that it is essential in the development of individual interest (Hidi & Renninger, 2006).

We have found evidence that a number of different design elements in interactive learning environments, such as games for learning, can impact the situational interest experienced by the learner. Among them are the game mechanics, the social mode of play, and the use of badges. In one study, we compared two versions of a geometry puzzle game for middle-school students, Noobs vs. Leets. The only difference between these versions was the game mechanics, i.e., the essential game play that the game afforded. In one version, players were asked to solve geometry problems of angles in quadrilaterals by computing a missing angle (numeric condition); in the other, they were asked to select the rule that needed to be applied to solve the problem (rule condition). Results showed that the numeric condition, based on the situation, was more interesting than the rule condition, suggesting that the selection of the game mechanic has an impact on learners’ affect (Plass et al., 2012).

We also compared three versions of a game on factoring for middle-school students that facilitated either individual play, competitive play of two players, or collaborative play of two players. Results of this study showed that competition and collaboration elicited greater situational interest than the individual play, suggesting that the social mode of play is able to impact affect (Plass, O’Keefe, et al., 2013). Finally, we designed a version of the Noobs vs. Leets game that awarded the learner different types of digital badges for the completion of in-game learning-related tasks. We found that the design of the badges impacted learners’ situational interest, in addition to learning outcomes (Biles & Plass, in press; Plass, O’Keefe, Biles, Frye, & Homer, 2014).

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Positive Youth Development

Reed W. Larson, Natalie Rusk, in Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 2011

3 Sustained Motivation in the Activity

One of the core hypotheses about IM is that it can lead to sustained motivation. In interest theory, initial experiences of IM (called situational interest) can grow into more enduring dispositional interest—the “love” Ron and Sheri described for their activities. The evidence on this question is quite robust. Findings confirm that experiences of IM are related to increased participation and interest. Reported experience of IM (or situational interest) consistently predicts a person's likelihood of subsequent participation in an activity or topic area (Harackiewicz, Barron, Tauer, Carter, & Elliot, 2000; Simpkins, Davis-Kean, & Eccles, 2006; Wigfield, Eccles, Schiefele, Roeser, & Davis-Kean, 2006). For example, Lavigne and Vallerand (2010) found that high-school students who participated in science activities they enjoyed during the semester, later reported greater interest and intention to take further science classes and to pursue a career in science. Consistent with interest theory, the research shows that if initial experiences in an activity are positive, they can lead to dispositional interest and expanded long-term participation (Hidi & Renninger, 2006).

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Academic Achievement Motivation, Development of

J.S. Eccles, A. Wigfield, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001

3.3 Interest Theories

Closely related to the intrinsic interest component of subjective task value is the work on ‘interest’ (Renninger et al. 1992). Researchers in this tradition differentiate between individual and situational interest. Individual interest is a relatively stable evaluative orientation towards certain domains; situational interest is an emotional state aroused by specific features of an activity or a task. The research on individual interest has focused on its relation to the quality of learning. In general, there are significant but moderate relations between interest and text learning. More importantly, interest is more strongly and positively related to indicators of deep-level learning (e.g., recall of main ideas, coherence of recall, responding to deeper comprehension questions, representation of meaning) than to surface-level learning (e.g., responding to simple questions, verbatim representation of text). The research on situational interest has focused on the characteristics of academic tasks that create interest. Among others, the following text features arouse situational interest: personal relevance, novelty, and comprehensibility.

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Interest

M. Ainley, in International Encyclopedia of Education (Third Edition), 2010

Situational Interest

Shifting the lens slightly directs the focus to the character of interest as determined by sources or factors that trigger interest. Specific kinds of events or contextual factors can trigger a state of interest and, when triggered in this way, interest has been referred to as situational interest. The young female student described above happened upon the planet images by chance. She was searching for a site on the Internet featuring a popular music group and happened to click on the planet link by chance. Immediately, her attention was caught by the colorful swirls of the orbiting planet and she investigated it further. Her interest in the planet is appropriately described as situational interest.

Situational interest can be triggered by a wide range of environmental events. Physical properties of an event, such as change, novelty, ambiguity, and uncertainty, have all been linked with the triggering of situational interest. This fact has often been used in educational settings to engage students with curriculum tasks. It is clear from a large number of research findings that interactive computers and digital information can be used to trigger situational interest in a variety of tasks for a wide range of students. In relation to learning and development, the problem then becomes one of holding or sustaining students' interest so that they engage with the learning content. There is no doubt that the new medium captures interest of the students. However, very often that interest rapidly wanes, and often disappears when what follows does not match the enticing first impressions. The interest triggered by the swirling color and movement of the planet in orbit is likely to dissipate if our student is reminded of her intention to find the music group's website.

A substantial proportion of the research on situational interest has investigated the influence of interest on reading text. General findings provide clear evidence of a significant effect of interest on performance indicators, for example, comprehension and recall of text information. It is also well documented that interest affects deeper processing as shown by scores on learning measures that require processes such as elaboration, transfer, or application of information to a new setting. These effects imply that techniques for increasing situational interest might be employed to improve learning outcomes. There are a number of text features that can be used to influence situational interest. Structural features of the text, such as novelty, coherence, ease of comprehension, and vividness, can be modified to increase interest. At an individual level, personally meaningful or valued content can be used to increase interest, while at the broader group level, themes of universal personal significance (e.g., life, death, or sex), sometimes referred to as absolute interests, have predictable effects on interest (Schraw and Lehman, 2001; Wade, 2001).

While providing some guidance for teachers, there are also some cautions to be heeded. When not connected to the important informational content of the text these themes may take on the character of seductive details. Rather than improving performance they may interfere with it by diverting attention away from significant text themes and meaning. It is when interest and important text elements coincide that interest has a positive influence on learning. Similar findings have been reported in other learning domains, for example, learning from science texts and learning with multimedia resources.

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Motivational Psychology of Human Development

Reinhard Pekrun, in Advances in Psychology, 2000

Conclusions

In this chapter, basic assumptions of a control-value theory of achievement emotions have been presented, and preliminary correlational evidence on some of these assumptions has been discussed. Beyond addressing individual antecedents of achievement emotions, control-value theory may be used as a framework for identifying and constructing social environments that nurture achievement-related emotional life and, thereby, learning, achievement, development, and health. The model is part of the larger family of social-cognitive theories of human development, thus being connected to cognitive models of social influences on motivation. As outlined above, it also relates to educational interest theory, since positive emotions directed toward achievement activities may be regarded as constituents of individual and situational interest in such activities. Furthermore, activity-related achievement emotions may be regarded as important elements of experiences of “flow” when performing such activities. One implication of this latter connection is that it might be worthwhile to disentangle different elements of flow experiences and analyze their interrelations instead of just relying on their holistic character, which flow research seems to have favored to do up-to-date.

Control-value theory focuses on antecedents and development of achievement emotions. However, beyond unidirectional perspectives on emotional development, achievement emotions may themselves be important causes for individual development. Achievement situations are ubiquituous in our global, economically oriented cultures, and they are highly relevant for most individuals because of their functions for education, occupation, and life courses, which implies that achievement emotions may be a primary category of human emotions today. They may be assumed to influence achievement-related motivation, strategies of learning, and resulting academic and occupational achievement. Furthermore, they may influence the formation of self-concepts and identity in the achievement domain and beyond. Finally, like emotions in general, achievement emotions may be assumed to be important factors in psychosomatic health. All of this implies that future research should invest more effort in addressing the full range of this multifaceted domain.

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Conclusions and Recommendations

Harold G. Koenig MD, in Religion and Mental Health, 2018

Specific Applications

These applications are appropriate for religious clients and may involve either “simple” religious interventions (prescribing religious activities, praying with clients) or integrating religious/spiritual beliefs into standard psychotherapeutic techniques.

“Prescribing” Religious Activities

For the anxious Jewish or Christian client, the therapist may recommend reading something from their sacred scriptures that could generate peace and comfort, such as the 23rd Psalm. The Muslim client might be encouraged to recite certain verses from the Qur’an, such as the 1st or 36th surah, or listen to these verses being recited by a trained reader of the Qur’an. For depressed Protestant Christians, the therapist might recommend the self-help book, “Telling Yourself the Truth,” which takes a Bible-based cognitive-behavioral approach toward depression and anxiety (Backus & Chapian, 2000). A more aggressive approach might be to prescribe an activity such as attending religious services. This would be done only if the activity was important to clients in the past but was stopped due to symptoms from mental disorder (social withdrawal, loss of energy or interest), situational factors (lack of transportation), or conflicts within their religious community (problems with other members of the congregation or clergy). For active Catholic clients, the therapist might encourage participation in the Sacraments or involvement in community service or volunteer work in order to enhance self-esteem or improve self-worth. Such prescriptions are probably safest and most appropriately done by religious professionals, whereas mental health professionals will have to proceed more cautiously. This could be done by gently “testing the waters” first to see how receptive the client might be to a particular religious practice before prescribing it, always keeping recommendations client-centered and avoiding any sense of coercion.

Prayer With Clients

A well-timed prayer with a religious client who is overwhelmed with situational stressors can be very powerful and effective in at least temporarily relieving symptoms. In contrast, a poorly timed prayer with the wrong client can be disastrous, viewed as coercive by clients or family members, and result in a successful lawsuit against the practitioner. Prayer in public mental health care settings can be tricky business, and should not be done routinely. Prayer with clients is seldom indicated unless the client requests the prayer, and even then, mental health professionals should explore the underlying motive for requesting prayer. An exception to this rule is the religious counseling setting, where the client comes in specifically for treatment that includes prayer (Christian counseling, for example).

Religiously-Integrated Psychotherapy

This is where the therapist integrates the client’s religious beliefs/practices into a standard psychotherapeutic technique (such as cognitive behavioral therapy, cognitive processing therapy, rational emotive therapy, etc.) in order to achieve treatment goals. The first step is to carefully identify healthy religious beliefs and practices and determine the language the client uses to express them. Those beliefs (expressed in the client’s language) are then used in CBT, for example, to support change and challenge dysfunctional attitudes, erroneous assumptions, and maladaptive behaviors that are responsible for distress and dysfunction. This is an evidence-based treatment that usually requires specialized training in order to competently administer.

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Motivational Psychology of Human Development

Andreas Krapp, in Advances in Psychology, 2000

A Person-Object Conception of Interest (POI)

The basic ideas about the development of POI can be traced back to considerations of H. Schiefele on the development of a genuinely educationally oriented theory of motivation (H. Schiefele, 1974, 1981; H. Schiefele, Haußer, & Schneider, 1979; H. Schiefele, Krapp, Prenzel, Heiland, & Kasten, 1983). Such a theory was expected to be able to make explicit statements about how an individual develops preferences for specific subjects or contents of learning, that is, how the development of content specificity in learning motivation can be explained. Besides, motivational phenomena should not only be discussed with respect to academic achievement and the prediction of interindividual differences in learning but also with respect to the emergence of central motivational dispositions that are stabilized during adolescence and have a growing influence on the direction of an individual’s life-long development.

The Interest Construct

Both earlier and more recent concepts of interest are, as a rule, based on a person-object concept that interprets the psychological phenomena of learning and development as a (permanent) interchange between a person and his or her social and objective environment. In accordance with ideas of Lewin (1936), Nuttin (1984), Oerter (1995), Deci and Ryan (1985,1991), Renninger (1992), and many others, it is postulated that the individual, as a potential source of action, and the environment as the object of action, constitute a bipolar unit. Therefore, the interest construct is conceptualized as a relational concept.

An interest represents or describes a specific relationship between a person and an object in his or her “life-space” (Lebensraum; cf. Lewin, 1936), which can be characterized by a series of features more closely (see below). With a view to the processes of (intentional) learning and the development of the personality, the person’s “epistemic interests” play an especially centralized role. They induce a person to be interested in certain object areas more intensively than others and to acquire new knowledge and competencies related to these areas. It is important to recognize that an “object of interest” can refer to a concrete thing, a topic, a subject matter, an abstract idea, or any other content of the cognitively represented life-space (Krapp & Fink, 1992; Prenzel, 1988, 1992). All these “objects” are represented cognitively, that is, the person has an object-specific knowledge, which differentiates increasingly (see below).

Two Levels of Analysis

Interests can be examined and reconstructed theoretically on two analysis levels. At the first level, research is concerned with the processes and states during concrete interactions between a person and his or her object of interest. In this case, the analysis focuses on the description and explanation of interesttriggered actions. Krapp et al. (1992) have proposed a conceptual model that differentiates between two prototype kinds of motivational states based on interest. An “actualized individual interest,” on the one hand, is the realization of an already established personal interest in a concrete situation. In the terminology of Csikszentmihalyi and Rathunde (1998), this experiential state is called “undivided interest.” A “situational interest,” on the other hand, is primarily created by conditions or incentives of the learning situation. This is called “interestingness” in the vernacular (Hidi, 1990; cf. Hidi & Bemdorff, 1998). A situational interest can be the initial state of a longer lasting “real” interest.

At the second level of analysis, interest is seen as a more or less lasting motivational characteristic of the person. An interest-oriented “person-objectrelationship” represents a content-specific motivational disposition (motive). Thus, at the first level of analysis, interest is interpreted as a motivational process or state, and at the second level as some kind of trait.

From a development theory perspective, both analysis levels are important. While at the first level processes are primarily studied that are responsible for the dynamics of the developmental course, the “crystallized” results or effect of the developmentally relevant processes and events are studied at the second level.

Characteristics of the Interest Construct

Independent of whether interest is examined on the level of the current processes or on the level of the dispositional structures of the individual, the specificity of this concept can be more closely characterized by a series of theoretically derived features. A first, general characteristic previously mentioned is the content or object specificity. In contrast to most other motivational constructs, especially in modem educational psychology, which are first of all concerned with formal aspects of the motivational conditions of learning, that is, with the general principles of the emergence of intentions and goals and their effects on learning and achievement (see above), the concept of interest explicitly adheres to the motivational meaning of the content of a learning goal or the quality of the objects of interest. Interests are, moreover, characterized by a pattern of formal characteristics that also show clear differences to the neighboring motivational constructs (cf. the appropriate chapters in Section 3 of this volume).

A central criterion is the close combination of value-oriented and emotional components. POI assumes that a person shows a high subjective esteem for the objects and actions in his or her areas of interest. These have the quality of personal significance, and in an emotional reference it is postulated that a person likes to deal with them. Interest-triggered actions produce mainly positively experienced emotions. This also applies to situations that require a high degree of effort. Dewey (1913) has already characterized the interest as an “undivided activity,” in which no contradiction is experienced between the cognitive rational assessment of the personally experienced importance of an action and positive emotional evaluations of the activity itself (cf. also Rathunde, 1993, 1998). This is one of the reasons why an interest-based action (e.g., knowledge acquisition in the area of interest) has the quality of “intrinsic motivation.”

From the POI perspective, this kind of experiential quality is the result of the very basic developmental principle of identification. Relating to similar ideas in self-determination theory (Deci, 1992; Deci & Ryan, 1985), it is postulated that a person experiences the realization of an interest as “intrinsically motivated” as he or she has—at least in the concrete situation—totally identified with the contents and tasks related to this interest. Even if the activity is strenuous or exhausting, the person has the impression of doing exactly what he or she wants to do in this situation. According to POI, an interest-determined action corresponds to the criterion of “self-intentionality.”

In addition to the content specificity and the emotional and value-related features discussed up to now, further characteristics can be used to describe the specific theoretical meaning of the interest construct. On the one hand, they concern the level of differentiation of the cognitive representations related to an individual’s interest (interest-specific knowledge) and on the other hand the readiness for activation and change at the initiation and realization of interest-oriented actions. Empirical studies have shown that a person acquires relatively differentiated knowledge in the content areas of his or her interests (Renninger, 1992; Tobias, 1994) and that a learning motivation based on interest leads to a relatively high level of academic achievement (U. Schiefele, Krapp, & Schreyer, 1993; U. Schiefele, Krapp, & Winteler, 1992). Taking this into account, several authors use the amount of available knowledge (in connection with value-oriented indicators) as the empirical (and theoretical) indicator of interest. Renninger (1998), for example, characterizes the personal interests of children “as those classes of objects, events, or ideas for which students have both more knowledge and more value (stronger positive feelings) than they have about other such classes” (p. 230). In this definition, the amount of knowledge is used primarily as a comparison criterion to identify those person-object relations of a child that fulfill the theoretical criteria of an interest with high probability. In theoretical and empirical studies on the influence of interest on learning, however, it would not be meaningful to include the postulated effects of interest-based activities in the operational definition of this construct. Therefore, U. Schiefele (1991, 1996) and Krapp (1992, 1999) have argued that this cognitive aspect might be appropriate for the identification of interest with small children whose knowledge acquisition is mainly interest determined, but not for a definition of interests in general.

Two further (cognitive) characteristics are of a more general nature. They also seem to be important because they allow a relatively clear separation of the interest concept from other motivational concepts frequently used in motivation research (e.g., a positive attitude). First, there is the relatively high readiness to activate a dispositional interest in situations that allow a lot of leeway. In situations that leave a person free to decide what to do and/or how to perform a task, there is a high probability that the person turns toward his or her current interests. The stronger the interest, the fewer incentives for the initiation of an interest-thematic action the person needs. Second, interests are signified by a high readiness to test and acquire new things, to learn and assume new knowledge, and to enlarge the competencies related to this domain. This implies that the person has comparatively differentiated, metacognitive knowledge opportunities for learning and development, which play an important role in the planning and execution of (future) interest-related actions. A highly interested person knows what he or she does not know yet but would like to know and be capable of doing in the future. Prenzel (1988, p. 159 ff.) refers to this as knowledge about “inherent object engagements” that goes beyond the domain of already executed interest-related actions. This trend to develop and improve further the pattern of interest-related competencies is an essential indicator for the current dynamics and “liveliness” of a current interest. If this trend disappears completely, one would no longer speak of interest; rather it would be an indicator of the fact that the person has given up this interest.

Summarizing, we can say that the concept of interest is defined as a particular person-object relationship, which can be studied and theoretically reconstructed both on the level of concrete interactions or engagements and on the level of dispositional individual structures. Essential (formal) characteristics refer to specific value- and feeling-related qualities (personal significance and positive emotional experiences during interest-based actions) and the “intrinsic quality,” which is based on a high level of identification with the object of interest, furthermore, interest is characterized by a high readiness for activation and change.

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Motivational Psychology of Human Development

Robin Stark, Heinz Mandl, in Advances in Psychology, 2000

Description of the Innovative Measures and of Their Potential Effects on Motivation

The contents of the method lecture series are presented in a consistently problem-oriented way. To render this possible, the curriculum had to be “slimmed down”: A problem-oriented presentation of a lecture is significantly more time-consuming than more traditional forms of teaching. In addition, this form of imparting the subject matter pushes mathematical and statistical issues more into the background. If the topic is, for example, variance analysis, the lecture does not begin with definitions and formulae for the breaking down of variances but with a relevant and authentic research problem. We construct a problem scenario that cannot be solved by the procedures dealt with in the course so far and, consequently, make it necessary to employ variance analysis. Of course, this teaching procedure does not preclude the presentation of formulae for statistical parameters or test statistics and so forth. We do not avoid such topics if they actually support the understanding of a procedure. As opposed to traditional training in psychology, however, this kind of subject matter is not dealt with merely for its own sake.

As a rule, the research problems and questions selected can be viewed as complex, at least from the students’ perspective. Therefore, the topics to be learned by the students are embedded in a meaningful context, so that the relevance and the functional nature of the knowledge to be acquired is made clear. We try to demonstrate that the problems dealt with and the resulting findings are by no means “merely” of academic interest. On the contrary, they are supposed to be interesting for the majority of the students.

For the virtual tutorial we have implemented a narrative format for presenting problems. In addition, we employ other design principles of situated learning. We introduce as narrators and “heroes” two students of pedagogics who fight their way through the “jungle” of empirical research methods and who struggle with problems of understanding and with identifying their own misconceptions. With these two protagonists we try to make possible a certain kind of identification with the job of coping with research problems. The expected predominance of extrinsic motivation can then be replaced by primarily intrinsically motivated coping processes. Identification processes should also be enhanced by the research task, which confronts the students with a “real” research problem. The students build teams of cooperating “scientists” and are systematically prepared to work on this problem by the two models in the virtual tutorial.

With the help of the narrative problem presentation realized, especially in the virtual tutorial, we specifically try to address the students’ curiosity motive (Berlyne, 1960). The learners’ curiosity for problems and for possible solutions is raised through the two “student-scientist” models. The additional principle of embedded data, which is consistently employed in the virtual tutorial, should also contribute to an increase in the students’ curiosity. The problems are selected in such a way that while the learners are dealing with them they should gain the impression that they do not as yet have sufficient information to arrive at a satisfactory solution. The discrepancy between actual knowledge and the knowledge necessary to solve the problems is also meant to encourage close attention to the contents of the lectures needed for working effectively on the problems. Ideally, the narrative format and the principle of embedded data, in connection with the use of relatively complex problems, will raise even intellectual or epistemological curiosity (Berlyne, 1960). This kind of curiosity is to be understood as a special case of situational interest (Schiefele, 1996). Learners with epistemological curiosity are characterized by their eagerness to acquire more knowledge to understand problems better and to deal with them more effectively; they develop a kind of urge for research and they aspire to understanding. Epistemological curiosity is fostered by surprise, doubt, bewilderment or uncertainty, and helplessness, as well as through confrontation with incompatible information. It is very likely that some of these conflict-generating variables regularly become active in the context of our training.

The implementation of the design principles described so far aims at fostering interest and topic-related intrinsic motivation (Krapp, 1999). However, by altering didactic features of the training, we not “only” try to increase topic-related but also activity-related intrinsic motivation (Schiefele, 1996). Within the virtual tutorial and in the context of the research task, the students are over and again immersed in problem situations that they define themselves (principle of the generative learning format) and that they consequently want to overcome. Therefore, we assume that such learning activities as, for example, the search for solution-relevant information, will be undertaken primarily for their own sake and not only because the students feel obliged to engage in them.

The narrative format, the generative format, and the principle of embedded data could even help to have intrinsically motivated activities accompanied by flow-like sensations (Csikszentmihalyi, 1985). A necessary condition for flow that is extremely conducive to learning is the adjustment of task difficulty to the learners’ abilities. When learners are in flow, they are totally wrapped up in the activities they perform in connection with the problem they work on. In these motivationally ideal states there are no self-directed reflections like self-doubt, which generally interfere with learning activities. Thus, flow is also incompatible with unease or fear. However, when low cognitive learning prerequisites are given, it is more likely instructors will overtax the learners than induce flow by presenting complex problems. This problem leads to the central topic of additional instructional support, which will be dealt with in detail below.

The motivational concepts considered up to now can be subsumed under the motivational value component. In the following we will deal with poten tial instructional effects that concern aspects of the motivational expectancy component. The complexity of the problems presented in the lectures and the students’ research task makes most of the learning activities assume the character of a challenge (Lepper & Malone, 1987). By presenting complex, nontrivial problem situations, the students are given the opportunity to experience a step-by-step improvement of their own competence. They are given the chance to experience making progress in mastering relevant problems. Hereby, motives that are related to the effectiveness of the learners (White, 1959), their competence, and their performance are addressed. If the complexity of the problem and the students’ abilities are suited to each other in such a way that the learners are really successful, a situation emerges in which beliefs of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986), feelings of autonomy and control (DeCharms, 1976), and, ideally, flow states (Csikszentmihalyi, 1985) are fostered. The learners’ self-efficacy beliefs are important both for the acceptability of performance targets and for the persistence in the learning effort (Schunk, 1991). The latter is especially relevant in view of the long time the students have to devote to the training in empirical research methods.

The principle of the generative learning format should promote the effect on self-efficacy aimed at here, since it explicitly prompts learners to become active, to get involved and take matters in hand by themselves. Compared to traditional forms of training in research methods, our training, which is “reformed” according to various principles of situated learning, aims at inducing a learning and mastery orientation rather than a performance orientation (Dweck, 1991). This goal is also to be attained by implementing cooperative learning.

To succeed in matching the problems’ degree of complexity with the students’ abilities and to render possible the positive effects of the instructional innovations described above we implement a wide range of additional supportive measures. Many problems that result from traditional training in empirical research methods are very likely due to a systematic overtaxing of the students. Overtaxing the learners does not just prevent them from experiencing flow. As a consequence, it also keeps them from reaching motivational states that are very “precious” with respect to both motivation and cognition.

The lecture format inevitably affords only limited possibilities of student support. The support here consists mainly of making all of the transparencies shown during the lectures available to the students in the form of copies before each lecture. Additionally, students are invited to pose questions. To probe into the students’ understanding of central concepts, we also direct questions at the students and give detailed feedback.

Is the psychological discomfort a person experiences?

Cognitive dissonance is the psychological discomfort a person experiences when simultaneously holding two or more conflicting cognitions.

What are the two basic dimensions of Schwartz's model of values?

The two basic dimensions of Schwartz's model of values are: self-enhancement/self-transcendence and openness to change/conservation.

Is defined by restraint of actions inclinations and impulses likely to upset or harm others and violate social expectations or norms?

Conformity- Restraint of actions, inclinations and impulses likely to upset or harm others and violate social expectations or norms. Tradition- Respect, commitment and acceptance of the customs and ideas one's culture or religion provides.

What drives behavior according to Schwartz's theory quizlet?

Schwartz proposed that broad values motivate our behavior across any context. He categorized these values into two opposing or bipolar dimensions. The first dimension ranges from concern for the welfare of others (which Schwartz calls self-transcendence) to pursuit of one's own interests (self-enhancement).