In 1957, a revolutionary book for the field of behavioral science was published: Schedules of Reinforcement by C.B. Ferster and B.F. Skinner.
The book described that organisms could be reinforced on different schedules and that different schedules resulted in varied behavioral outcomes.
Ferster and Skinner’s work established that how and when behaviors were reinforced carried significant effects on the strength and consistency of those behaviors.
A schedule of reinforcement is a component of operant conditioning (also known as ininstrumental conditioning). It consists of an arrangement to determine when to reinforce behavior. For example, whether to reinforce in relation to time or number of responses.
Operant conditioning, also known as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning normally attributed to B.F. Skinner, where the consequences of a response determine the probability of it being repeated. Through operant conditioning behavior which is reinforced (rewarded) will likely be repeated, and behavior which is punished will occur less frequently.
By the 1920s, John B. Watson had left academic psychology, and other behaviorists were becoming influential, proposing new forms of learning other than classical conditioning. Perhaps the most important of these was Burrhus Frederic Skinner. Although, for obvious reasons, he is more commonly known as B.F. Skinner.
Skinner's views were slightly less extreme than those of Watson (1913). Skinner believed that we do have such a thing as a mind, but that it is simply more productive to study observable behavior rather than internal mental events.
The work of Skinner was rooted in a view that classical conditioning was far too simplistic to be a complete explanation of complex human behavior. He believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning.
BF Skinner: Operant Conditioning
Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s (1898) law of effect. According to this principle, behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated.
Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect - Reinforcement. behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e., weakened).
Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which he placed in a 'Skinner Box' which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box.
Operant conditioning is the basis of animal training. It is a type of learning in which an animal learns (or, is conditioned) from its behaviors as it acts (operates) on the environment. In operant conditioning, the likelihood of a behavior is increased or decreased by the consequences that follow. That is, a behavior will happen either more often or less often, depending on its results. When an animal performs a particular behavior that produces a favorable consequence, the animal is likely to repeat that behavior.
Animals learn by the principles of operant conditioning every day. For example, woodpeckers find insects to eat by pecking holes in trees with their beaks. One day, a woodpecker finds a particular tree that offers an especially abundant supply of the bird's favorite bugs. The woodpecker is likely to return to that tree again and again.
Humans learn by the same principles. For example, consider the behavior of a child doing chores. Suppose a child voluntarily performs a chore, like cleaning the garage or washing the car. If the behavior is reinforced by positive attention such as praise, money, or some other reward, the child is likely to do additional chores on his own. If no positive attention were to follow, repeating that behavior would be less likely.
Animal trainers apply the principles of operant conditioning. If an animal performs a behavior that the trainer wants to see performed again, the trainer will administer a favorable consequence.
If an animal performs a behavior that the trainer wants to see performed again, the trainer will administer a favorable consequence.
Positive Reinforcement
Let's explore those favorable consequences a little further. A favorable consequence is often a physical experience - something that can be seen, heard, felt, or tasted. This experience is a type of stimulus. When an animal performs a behavior that produces a positive stimulus, the animal is likely to repeat the behavior in the near future. The positive stimulus is termed a positive reinforcer because it reinforces, or strengthens, the behavior. When a positive reinforcer immediately follows a behavior, it increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. It must immediately follow the behavior in order to be effective.
Positive reinforcement can also be called rewards. Rewards take on many forms. For animals, one of the most common rewards is food. Indeed, many behaviors animals do in the wild are for getting food. If certain behaviors allow an animal to get food successfully, the animal will repeat these behaviors the next time it is hungry.
Food is an example of a primary reinforcer. Primary reinforcers are reinforcers that are automatically positive. An animal does not have to learn to "like" them. Other examples of primary reinforcers include water, shelter, and mating opportunities. Several types of primary reinforcers provide tactile stimulation, like a good back scratch. For people, a hug can be very reinforcing.
Primary reinforcers are reinforcers that are automatically positive. Food is an example of a primary reinforcer.
Not all types of reinforcers are automatically positive. Some can be learned. Reinforcers that are learned are called conditioned reinforcers. For example, money is not a primary reinforcer. To small children, money is just paper. But children grow to learn that money can be used to buy candy, toys, and other things they like. Money becomes very rewarding. It is one of the most common and effective reinforcers in many human societies.
Animals learn conditioned reinforcers when they are paired with primary ones. Suppose an animal trainer exclaims "Good boy!" and then gives the animal food or a back scratch. After several repetitions, the exclamation "Good boy!" will become rewarding to the animal. Positive attention like this is a conditioned reinforcer.
Positive attention is a conditioned reinforcer.
Negative Reinforcement
A less common type of reinforcement is negative reinforcement. Unlike positive reinforcement, which involves giving a favorable stimulus, negative reinforcement involves removing an unfavorable stimulus. For example, consider a child crying or whining for something it wants. If his parent gives in and produces the desired effect (that is, giving the child what he wants), the child stops crying. He has reinforced his parent's behavior by removing the unfavorable stimulus. It can be argued that this isn't necessarily the ideal outcome for the parent - the parent has just reinforced the child's crying behavior! But it is an example of negative reinforcement.
Negative reinforcement is not punishment. Punishment involves giving an unfavorable consequence. Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior repeating. Both positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated.
Schedules Of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement for desired behaviors may occur on one of four possible reinforcement schedules.
Fixed interval.
This schedule of reinforcement is based on receiving reinforcement after a fixed amount of time. The desired behavior must continue for a certain amount of time before a reinforcer is delivered. The amount of time between reinforcers is always the same. Perhaps the most common type of fixed interval reinforcement is an employee who gets a paycheck every two weeks for doing his job. The paycheck reinforces his continued work.
Fixed ratio.
A fixed ratio reinforcement schedule is based on receiving reinforcement after a fixed amount of behaviors. The desired behavior must occur a certain number of times before it is reinforced. The number of behaviors always remains the same. Example: a child receives an ice cream cone after she reads five books. She receives a reward after every fifth book she reads.
Variable interval.
Variable interval reinforcement occurs after varying lengths of time. The behavior is reinforced at random intervals. Volunteer work may fall under this category. Because it is not a paid job, volunteer workers find reinforcement in ways other than money. Words or gestures of appreciation, given at random intervals, are reinforcing. The volunteer is likely to continue his work.
Variable ratio.
Variable ratio reinforcement occurs after a varying number of behaviors. Reinforcement varies unpredictably, so the person or animal performing the behavior is never certain when they will be reinforced. A common example of variable ratio reinforcement in humans is gambling. A person depositing coins in a slot machine is never sure when he will receive a pay-off. Initially, variable ratio reinforcement may take longer to condition a behavior. But once conditioned, the behavior generally occurs at a higher rate and takes longer to extinguish.
Extinction Of Behavior
If a behavior is not reinforced, it decreases. Eventually, it is extinguished altogether. This is called extinction. Animal trainers use the technique of extinction to eliminate undesired behaviors. (In animal training, when a trainer requests a particular behavior and the animal gives no response, this is also considered an undesired behavior.) To eliminate the behavior, they simply do not reinforce it. Over time, the animal learns that a particular behavior is not producing a desired effect. The animal discontinues the behavior.
When using the extinction technique, it is important to identify what stimuli are reinforcing for an animal. The trainer must be careful not to present a positive reinforcer after an undesirable behavior. The best way to avoid reinforcing an undesired behavior is to give no stimulus at all.
When an organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays a behavior it is called?
Behavior is motivated by the consequences we receive for the behavior: reinforcements and punishments. When an organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays a behavior, it is called continuous reinforcement. Classical and operant conditioning are forms of associational learning. Page 8. 2/14/2019.
When a person or animal makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together?
Associative learning occurs when an organism makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together in the environment.
What is continuous reinforcement?
Continuous Reinforcement: A type of learning which reinforces a desired behavior every time it occurs. Partial Reinforcement: A type of learning which occasionally reinforces a desired behavior after it happens, such as praising a student every other time a question is answered correctly.
What type of Behaviour is reinforced in classical conditioning?
Classical conditioning involves associating an involuntary response and a stimulus, while operant conditioning is about associating a voluntary behavior and a consequence.
